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CENTRAL  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 

University  of  California,  San  Diego 

DATE  DUE 

1 

ma:  'V     1t;1 

MAR  G  1  H^i 

AUG  2  8  ?m 

ILL'- y^S^i/l^ 

CI  39 

UCSD  Libr. 

BUILDERS    OF 
GREATER    BRITAIN 

Edited  by  H.  F.  WILSON,  M.A. 

Ba  rrister-a  t-Law 

Late  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge 

Le^al  Assistant  at  the  Colonial  Office 


DEDICATED  BT  SPECIAL 
PERMISSION  TO  HER 
MAJESTY  THE  QUEEN 


BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 


1.  SIR  WALTER  RALEGH  ;  the  British  Dominion  of 

the  West.     By  Martin  A.  S.  Hume. 

2.  SIR    THOMAS    MAITLAND ;    the  Mastery  of  the 

Mediterranean.     By  WALTER  Frewen  Lord. 

3.  JOHN  AND  SEBASTIAN  CABOT;  the  Discovery  of 

North  America.    By  C.  Raymond  Beazley,  M.A. 

4.  EDWARD   GIBBON    WAKEFIELD;    the  Coloni- 

zation of  South  Australia  and  New  Zealand.     By 
R.  Garnett,  C.B.,  LL.D. 

5.  LORD  CLIVE;    the  Foundation  of  British  Rule  in 

India.    By  Sir  A.  J.  Arbuthnot,  K.C.S.L,  CLE. 

6.  ADMIRAL   PHILLIP  ;  the  Founding  of  New  South 

Wales.   By  Louis  Becke  and  Walter  Jeffery. 

7.  RAJAH  BROOKE ;  the  Englishman  as  Ruler  of  an 

Eastern  State.  By  Sir  Spenser  St  John  ,  G.  C.  M.  G. 

8.  SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES;    England  in  the  Far 

East.     By  Hugh  E.  Egerton,  M.A. 


,'j"]'')'ERS[TY  OF  (.Al  IFOHNIA    SAN  DIEG 


822  00537  5340 


Builders 

of 

Greater  Britain 


SIR   STAMFORD   RAFFLES 


V    ' 


IT 


S[R  STAMFORD  RAFFLES 


ENGLAND    IN   THE   FAR   EAST 


BY 


I  UGH    KDVVARD    EGKRTON,    MA. 

AUTHOR    OF 
'a    short    history   of    BRITISH    COLONIAL    POLICY' 


.NEW  YORK 
LONGMANS,   GREEN    &    CO. 
91  AND  93  FIFTH  AVENUE 
I  goo 


PREFACE 

Towards  the  end  of  1898  Mr  H.  F.  Wilson, 
the  Editor  of  this  Series,  who  had  undertaken 
the  life  of  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  asked  me,  owing 
to  the  pressure  of  his  official  work  at  the 
Colonial  Office,  to  assist  him  in  this  volume. 
Mr  Wilson  was  sent  out  in  February  to  South 
Africa  to  Sir  Alfred  Milner  in  a  legal  capacity  ; 
so  that,  unfortunately,  it  became  clear  that, 
unless  the  book  was  to  be  indefinitely  post- 
poned, Mr  Wilson  must  abandon  the  task.  In 
this  state  of  things,  the  life  was  entrusted  to 
me. 

The  present  biography  assuredly  does  not 
lack  from  want  of  material.  The  Records  in 
the  India  Office  relating  to  Sir  Stamford  Raffles 
would  fill  by  themselves  many  goodly  volumes. 
There  is  besides  a  fair  amount  of  material  pub- 
lished by  Raffles.  I  have  examined  to  the  best 
of  my  ability  a  very  great  number  of  Papers 
at    the    India     Office    relating    to    Prince    of 


xii  PREFACE 

Wales's  Island,  Java,  Bencoolen  and  Singapore, 
including  those  still  in  the  Secret  Department. 
In  spite  of  past  gleaners  in  the  field,  some  of 
the  material  here  quoted  has  not,  I  believe, 
been  previously  printed.  I  have  to  express 
my  acknowledgments  to  the  authorities  of  the 
India  Office  Library,  and  to  Mr  W.  Foster,  the 
Honorary  Secretary  of  the  Hakluyt  Society, 
for  assistance  in  this  connection. 

Through  the  kindness  of  the  Rev.  Canon 
Raffles  Flint,  of  Ladock  Rectory,  son  of  the 
'  little  Charley '  of  the  burning  of  the  Fame^  I 
have  had  access  to  a  very  interesting  collection 
of  letters  addressed  to  Mr  W.  Ramsay,  Raffles's 
great  friend,  to  his  sister,  Mrs  Flint,  and  to 
the  Duchess  of  Somerset.  These  letters  were, 
of  course,  in  the  possession  of  Lady  Raffles, 
but  the  stern  view  she  took  of  the  position  of 
a  biographer  caused  her  to  make  sparing  use 
of  them  except  on  certain  occasions.  To  Canon 
Raffles  Flint  I  am  further  indebted  for  the  en- 
graving which  forms  the  frontispiece,  for  the 
loan  of  a  volume  of  confidential  letters  to  Lord 
Minto,  dating  from  January  to  March  1812, 
and  finally  for  some  valuable  notes  on  the 
acquisition  of  Singapore  by  Mr  W.  H.  Read, 
C.M.G.,  late  Dutch  Consul  at  Singapore. 

Mrs  Stamford  Raffles,  the  widow  of  the  well- 


PREFACE  xiii 

known  Liverpool  stipendiary  magistrate,  has 
kindly  allowed  me  to  peruse  the  Reminiscences 
drawn  up  by  her  father-in-law,  Dr  Raffles, 
relating  to  his  cousin,  Sir  Stamford.  I  have 
also  to  express  my  gratitude  to  the  Rev.  R.  B. 
Raffles,  a  grandson  of  Dr  Raffles,  for  access  to 
the  correspondence  of  Sir  Stamford  with  Dr 
Raffles.  These  authorities  will  be  found  more 
fully  drawn  upon  in  the  Life  of  Sir  Stamford 
Raffles  by  Demetrius  C.  Boulger. 

The  Rev.  R.  B.  Raffles,  who  contributed 
largely  to  the  Life  by  Mr  Boulger,  still  con- 
tinues his  interest  in  his  celebrated  relative. 
He  has  most  kindly  allowed  me  to  inspect  a 
mass  of  information  which  he  has  collected 
with  regard  to  the  scientific  side  of  our  hero's 
life.  The  standpoint  of  this  book  has  not 
allowed  me  to  make  much  use  of  this,  but  it 
is  to  be  hoped  that  at  some  future  date  Mr 
Raffles  will  see  his  way  to  illustrate  this  branch 
of  the  subject.  In  addition,  I  have  to  thank 
Mr  Raffles  for  some  most  valuable  and  helpful 
suggestions. 

The  Rev.  J.  R.  Crawford  has  kindly  fur- 
nished me  with  the  copy  of  a  paper  relating  to 
the  survey  of  Singapore  harbour  by  his  grand- 
father. Captain  Crawford. 

Sir    James     Swettenham,    K.C.M.G.,     most 


xiv  PREFACE 

kindly  forwarded  to  Mr  Wilson  the  instructions, 
quoted  in  Appendix  II.,  and  copies  of  several 
letters,  including  a  letter  to  Colonel  Adden- 
brooke  on  the  acquisition  of  Singapore. 

I  have  further  to  express  our  thanks  to  Lieu- 
tenant-General  the  Hon.  Sir  Andrew  Clarke, 
R.E.,  G.C.M.G.,  for  the  use  of  an  interesting; 
paper  on  Rafiies,  read  before  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion on  May  27,  1898. 

In  the  chapters  on  Java,  I  have  got  much 
help  from  the  late  Dutch  historian  Deventer's 
Daendels — Raffies  (translated  by  G.  G.  Batten). 
It  is  a  pity  that  this  brilliant  little  book 
appears  so  little  known  to  English  readers. 
As  the  appearance  of  a  new  biography  of 
Raffles,  after  the  publication  of  Mr  Boulger's 
complete  Life,  may  need  a  word  of  apology,  it 
may  be  pointed  out  that  the  very  different  scale 
of  the  present  volume  prevents  any  idea  of 
competition.  It  may  be  added  that  the  present 
volume  was  decided  upon  before  the  announce- 
ment of  Mr  Boulger's  Life.  I  have  to  recognise 
my  obligation  to  it  for  some  statements  of 
facts  in  the  first  two  chapters  and  in  Chapters 
VIII.  and  XIV.  At  the  same  time  the  new 
material  here  employed,  and  the  independent 
use  of  the  old  material  existing  in  the  India 
Office,  may,  I  trust,  justify  this  book's  existence, 


PREFACE  XV 

especially  when  it  is  remembered  that  no  Series 
of  Builders  of  Greater  Britain  could  be  com- 
plete with  the  omission  of  the  name  of  Raffles. 
In  conclusion,  I  have  to  express  my  sincere 
apologies  for  any  shortcomings  in  this  volume, 
due  to  the  absence  of  the  Editor  in  South  Africa. 
The  ordinary  reader  can  hardly  realise  the 
amount  of  labour  and  time  which  the  exercise 
of  such  editorial  work  involves.  It  is  a  cause 
of  some  anxiety  to  me  that  the  present  volume 
appears  without  the  mainstay  of  this  editorial 
support.  Perhaps,  however,  those  who  recognise 
that  in  its  way  the  work  of  empire-repairing  is 
as  necessary  as  the  work  of  empire-building,  and 
that  it  is  in  this  work  that  Mr  Wilson  is 
engaged,  will  view  with  some  indulgence  this 
record  of  not  the  least  amongr  the  Builders  of 
Greater  Britain. 

HUGH  E.  EGERTON. 

May^  1900. 


CONTENTS 

I'AGi-: 
Preface,  ..■•••*' 

CHAPTER  I 

THE    FIRST    STEP    ON    THE    LADDER 

(17S1-1305) 

Parentage  and  Early  Years— Enters  India  House— Char- 
acter—Assistant  Secretary  to  Prince  of  Wales's  Island 
Government — Marriage— Studies  Malay  Language,      .  1 

CHAPTER  II 

EMBARKS    UPON    '  POLITICAL     RESEARCHES  ' 

(1805 -to) 

Life  at  Penang—Leyden— Visits  Malacca— Minute  on 
Proposed  Abandonment— Its  Success— Appointed  Secre- 
tary— Question  of  Increased  Salary,      .  ■  •         ^3 

CHAPTER  III 

AGENT  TO  THE   GOVERNOR-GENERAL   WITH    THE 

MALAY  STATES 

(1810-11) 

Political  Situation— Capture  of  Moluccas— Suggested  as 
Governor  —  Visits  Calcutta  —  Lord  Minto  —  Head- 
ouarters,  Malacca — Abdulla — Reports  from  Malacca 
— Java  Expedition,  .  •  •  •  •         33 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE    CONl^UEST    OF    JAVA 
(iSii) 

The  Voyage — Military  Operations— Appointed  Lieutenant- 
Governor — Lord  Minto's  Decision  as  to  Retention,       .  50 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    V 

THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    JAVA 

(1811-16) 

PAGE 

The    Dutch    Regime  —  Difficulties    of    Situation  —  Lord 
MiNTo's    Proclamation — Visits    Courts    of  Souracarta 

and    djocjocarta  fiscal    regulations  amended 

System  in  the  Administration  of  Justice — Palembang 
Expedition  —  Visits  Samarang  —  Settlement  with 
Native  Princes — Lord  Minto's  Approval,  .  60 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    JAVA COntltlUea 

(1811-16) 

System  of  Land  Tenure — Tentative  Experiments — Settle- 
ment OF  18 1 3 — Final  Settlement  of  18 14 — Position 
OF  Regents  —  Difficultif.s  of  Governor's  Position — 
Success  of  Measures  —  Financial  Situation  —  Lord 
Minto's  Advice — General  Gillespie — Relations  with 
Governor — Sale  of  Public  Land — Gillespie's  Charges 
— Final  Acquittal,  .  .  .  .  .83 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    JAVA COflcluded 

(1811-16) 

Policy  as  to  Eastern  Islands — Treatment  by  Home  Govern- 
ment— Japan — Measures  as  to  Slavery — Opium — Ques- 
tion OF  Retention  of  Java — Dismissal — Death  of 
Mrs  Raffles — Journeys  to  the  Eastward,  '.  .        118 


CHAPTER   VIII 

REVISITS    ENGLAND    AND    IS    '  LIONISED  ' 
(1816-17) 

Voyage  Home — Interview  with  Napoleon — Life  in  London 
— 'History  of  Java'  —  Friendship  with  Duchess  of 
Somerset — Second  Marriage — Tour  on  Continent — Re- 
turns TO  the  East,  .  .  .  .  .131 


CONTENTS  xix 

CHAPTER    IX 
BENCOOLEN 

(1818-24) 

PAGE 

First  Impressions  —  Measures  of  Reform  —  Emancipating 
Slaves — Policy  with  Regard  to  Natives — Promotes 
Agriculture  —  Approval  of  Planters  —  Schools  for 
Native  Children — Treatment  of  Convicts,  .146 

CHAPTER  X 

THE  POLITICAL  SIDE  OF  THE  BENCOOLEN  GOVERNMENT 

Extent  OF  His  Jurisdiction — Dutch  Predominance — General 
Policy — Protest,  August  1818 — Case  of  Palembang — 
PuLo  NiAS — Lord  Hastings's  Minute,      .  .  .158 

CHAPTER  XI 

THE    ACQUISITION    OF    SINGAPORE 

(1S19) 

Visits  Calcutta — Instructions  for  Mission  to  Eastward — 
Revised  Instructions  as  to  Johor — Arrives  at  Penang — 
Colonel  Bannerman — Singapore — Starts  for  Penang — 
Surveys  Carimon  Islands — Lands  at  Singapore — Treaty 
with  Authorities — Appoints  Major  Farouhar  Resident 
— Indignation  of  Dutch — Conduct  of  Bannerman — 
Decision  of  Supreme  Government — Disapproval  of 
Home  Authorities — Postponement  of  Decision  saves 
Singapore — Raffles  on  His  Acquisition — Mission  to 
Acheen,      .  .  .  .  .  .  .171 

CHAPTER  XII 

LIFE    AT    BENCOOLEN 

Home  Life — Travels    to  Interior — Death    of    Children — 

Illness — Homesick,  .....       199 

CHAPTER  XIII 

SINGAPORE    REVISITED 
(1S22-23) 

Colonel  Farquhar — Mistakes  of  Resident — Measures  of 
Reform — Foundation  of  Singapore  Institute — Aboli- 
tion of  Slavery — Final  Departure,        .  .  .215 


XX  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XIV 

VOYAGE    HOME    AND    LAST    DAYS    IN    ENGLAND 

(1824-26) 

PAGE 

Further  Misfortune — Starts  for  England — Burning  of 
THE  'Fame'  —  Voyage  Home — Plans  for  Life  in 
England  —  Recovers  His  Spirits  —  Purchases  '  High- 
wood' — Enjoys  Society — Founds  'Zoo' — Claim  by  East 
India  Company — Death,  .....       237 

CHAPTER  XV 
The  Man  and  his  Work,         .....       263 

APPENDIX 

I.  Genealogical  Tree,  .....       274 

II.  Instructions  by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  with  Regard  to 

the  Planning  Out  of  Singapore,         .  .  .       279 

Index,    .  .......       285 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Sir  Thomas  Stamford  Raffles,  Knt.,  from  Bust 

BY  Chantrey,    .....  Frontispiece 

Map  of  Java,  .....       Tofacepage  60 

Map  of  Easilrn  Archipelago,  .  .      Tofacepage  146 


Sir  Stamford   Raffles 

CHAPTER    I 

THE    FIRST    STEP    ON    THE    LADDER    (1781-1805) 

Parentage  and  Early  Years — Enters  India  House — Character — 
Assistant  Secretary  to  Prince  of  Wales's  Island  Government — 
Marriage — Studies  Malay  Language. 

Thomas  Stamford  Raffles,  to  whom  more  than 
to  politicians  or  treaties  Great  Britain  owes  her  position 
in  the  Far  East,  was  born  on  July  6,  1781.  The 
time  was  one  of  gloom  and  humiliation,  but  the 
fault  lay  witlf  statesmen  and  generals,  and  did  not  go 
to  the  roots  of  the  national  character,  and  so,  even  at 
the  moment  when  the  British  Empire  seemed  approach- 
ing its  end,  there  was  room  for  new  builders  of  Greater 
Britain  to  be  born  into  the  world. 

Stamford's  father,  Benjamin  Raffles,  was  a  captain 
employed  in  the  West  India  trade  out  of  London. 
According  to  the  custom  of  the  day.  Captain  Raffles 
was  accompanied  by  his  wife,  and  thus  our  hero  was 
born  at  sea  on  board  the  ship  Ann^  off  the  harbour  or 
Morant,  in  Jamaica.  Not  very  much  appears  to  be 
known  with  regard  to  his  father's  family.  For  some 
generations  it  had  been  settled  at  Beverley,  in  York- 
shire,   and    the    name    frequently    occurs    in    the   old 


2  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

registers.  A  Raffles  was  Mayor  of  Beverley  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  Sir  Stamford  claimed  with 
pardonable  pride  a  Sir  Benjamin  Raffles,  created 
Knight  Banneret  'about  the  time  of  James  I.  or 
James  IL'  It  is  perhaps  sufficient  for  present  pur- 
poses to  note  that  Raffles  came  of  a  good  north 
country  stock,  from  a  county  the  shrewdness  of  whose 
sons  has  become  a  byword  among  men. 

Raffles  was  baptized  on  board  ship,  his  godfathers, 
who  appeared  by  proxy,  being  a  Mr  Bingley,  of 
London,  and  a  Mr  Stamford,  of  Jamaica.  On  the 
return  of  the  family  to  England,  he  was  '  re-baptized  ' 
(an  altogether  irregular  proceeding)  by  the  Rev.  T. 
Lindeman,  who  had  married  his  mother's  sister,  and 
on  this  occasion  he  was  registered  only  under  the  name 
of  Thomas.  The  name  of  Thomas  was  derived  from 
his  grandfather,  who  occupied  for  forty  years  a  post  as 
clerk  in  the  Prerogative  Office,  Doctors'  Commons. 
He  died  in  1784,  when  his  grandson  was  only  three 
years  old.  If  little  is  known  of  the  Raffles  family,  Sir 
Stamford's  parentage  on  his  mother's  side  has  re- 
mained yet  more  obscure.  Lady  Raffles  states  in  the 
Memoir  that  *  Mr  Raffles  was  baptized  at  Eaton  Bishop, 
in  Herefordshire,  whilst  his  mother  was  on  a  visit  to 
her  brother^  the  Rev.  John  Lindeman,  who  was  at 
that  time  the  incumbent  of  the  living.'  In  fact, 
however,  Mr  Lindeman  was  brother-in-law  to  Mrs 
Raffles,  and  the  maiden  name  of  Raffles's  mother  was 
Lyde.  More  important,  however,  than  even  her 
name  or  pedigree  was  the  fact  that  between  mother 
and  son   there   existed   that   close   intimacy  which  is 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  3 

found  perhaps  most  often  in  the  lives  of  the  greatest 
men.  The  primary  motive  to  efforts,  which  placed 
Raffles  on  the  first  step  of  the  ladder  which  was  to 
lead  to  greatness,  was  the  desire  to  help  his  parents  in 
their  straitened  circumstances.  Of  the  early  years 
of  our  hero  no  record  remains.  When  we  first  hear 
of  him  he  is  at  school  at  Hammersmith,  under  a  Dr 
Anderson.  He  did  not,  however,  remain  at  school 
more  than  about  two  years.  Raffles  throughout  his 
life  never  ceased  to  lament  the  loss  of  a  regular  in- 
tellectual training.  After  his  last  return  to  England, 
when  his  life  work  had  been  in  fact  completed,  we 
find  him,  more  than  half  seriously,  writing,  '  Were  I 
not  a  married  man,  I  should  be  half  inclined  to  study 
for  a  bachelor's  degree,  and  to  make  up  even  at  this 
time  of  life  for  the  sad  omissions  of  my  youth,  which 
I  can  never  too  deeply  deplore.  Hurried  into  public 
life  before  I  was  fifteen  years  of  age,  my  education 
was  sadly  neglected,  and  in  returning  to  the  civilised 
world  I  feel  like  a  Hottentot.' 

Before  Raffles  had  completed  his  fourteenth  year,  in 
1795,  he  was  admitted  as  an  extra  clerk  in  the  India 
House.  His  pay  in  this  position  appears  to  have  been  a 
guinea  a  week.  With  Raffles,  however,  leaving  school 
did  not  mean  the  abandonment  of  education.  'My 
leisure  hours,'  he  writes,  in  the  very  interesting  autobio- 
graphical letter  to  his  cousin,  Dr  Raffles,  first  published 
in  full  by  Mr  Boulger,  'still  continued  to  be  devoted 
to  favourite  studies,  and  with  the  little  aid  which  my 
allowances  afforded,  and  which  were  not  completely 
swallowed  up  by  the  wants  of  my  family,  I  contrived 


4  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

to  make  myself  master  of  the  French  language,  and 
to  prosecute  inquiries  into  some  of  the  various  depart- 
ments of  literature  and  science.  This  was,  however, 
in  stolen  moments,  either  before  the  office  hours  in 
the  morning  or  after  them  in  the  evening ;  and  I 
shall  never  forget  the  mortification  I  felt  when  the 
penury  of  my  family  once  induced  my  mother  to 
complain  of  my  extravagance  in  burning  a  candle  in 
my  room.'  Xo  make  matters  worse,  it  was  not 
merely  the  daily  wants  of  the  family  which  had  to  be 
supplied.  *  Long  standing  debts  and  a  want  of  the 
means  to  prevent  still  further  involvement  caused  me 
many  a  bitter  moment.'  Growing  up  in  these  sur- 
roundings, Raffles  of  necessity  never  knew  the 
insouciance  or  selfish  serenity  of  the  ordinary  school- 
boy. From  the  first  it  was  inevitably  the  case  of  an 
old  head  on  young  shoulders.  If  the  boy  is  father  to 
the  man,  the  man,  Sir  Stamford,  was  bound  to  be  the 
same  strenuous,  restless  being  whose  spirit,  in  its 
constant  demands,  was  to  tire  out  the  body  by  the 
time  it  had  reached  ordinary  middle-age. 

Meanwhile  virtue  was  rewarded,  and  in  1800  a 
vacancy  occurring  in  the  establishment,  Raffles's 
*  peculiar  qualifications  for  once  set  aside  the  pre- 
tensions of  those  who  were  supported  by  the  usual 
patronage.'  Not  content,  however,  with  his  ordinary 
duties  and  with  the  task  of  conducting  his  own 
education,  he  found  time  to  undertake  extra  work,  for 
which  he  received  gratuities  of  from  ^^20  to  ;^30  a 
year.  No  wonder  that  under  this  strain  the  body 
began  to  show  danger  signals.     His  constitution  was 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  5 

naturally  delicate.  As,  however,  he  appears  for  the  time 
to  have  been  completely  restored  to  health,  under  the 
drastic  treatment  of  a  walking  tour  in  Wales,  averag- 
ing thirty  to  forty  miles  a  day,  it  may  be  inferred  that 
*  the  seeds  of  consumption,'  of  which  we  read,  had  not 
gone  very  far.  It  is  pleasant  to  picture  the  eager 
youth  in  this  rare  interval  of  holiday.  He  was 
always  singularly  susceptible  to  the  charm  of  natural 
scenery.  '  A  mountain  scene,'  his  widow  notes, 
'  would  bring  tears  into  his  eyes  ;  a  flower  would  call 
forth  a  burst  of  favourite  poetry.'  As  a  schoolboy  his 
garden  had  been  his  delight.  Pleasures,  as  a  rule,  are 
the  most  intense  when  they  are  the  least  diffused  in 
time  and  manner,  and  the  charm  of  a  mountain  tour 
could  best  be  felt  by  one,  who  on  his  last  return  to 
England  could  say  that  he  had  never  seen  a  horse 
race  and  never  fired  a  gun.  Doubtless,  moreover, 
other  thoughts  were  beginning  to  visit  young  Raffles. 
The  following  description  of  himself,  written  to  an 
intimate  associate  of  his  early  years,  just  after  the 
landing  at  Java,  in  a  moment  of  expansion,  throws 
a  welcome  light  on  the  man's  real  nature.  '  You 
always  said  I  was  a  strange,  wild  fellow,  insatiable  in 
ambition,  though  meek  as  a  maiden  ;  and  perhaps 
there  was  more  truth  than  otherwise  in  what  you 
said  ;  but  with  all,  I  will  assure  you  this,  that 
although,  from  want  of  self-confidence  and  from 
natural  shamefacedncss  (for  I  will  not  call  it  modesty 
or  bashfulness),  I  am  as  unhappy  at  times  as  any  poor 
wretch  need  be,  I  have  times  in  which  I  am  as  happy 
as  I  think  it  possible  for  man  to  be.' 


6  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

In  1802  Raffles's  salary  was  fixed  at  ^'jo  per 
annum,  nor  could  his  extra  labour  make  it  in  all 
more  than  £100.  The  opportunity,  however,  which 
is  said  to  come  to  all  who  wait  for  it  was  close  at 
hand,  and  in  1805  came  the  appointment  which  was 
to  direct  the  course  of  his  future  life. 

The  island  of  Penang  had  been  acquired  from  the 
Rajah  of  Quedah  for  the  East  India  Company  in 
1786  by  Captain  Light.  In  1805  it  was  -decided  to 
constitute  it  a  regular  Presidency,  with  a  Governor  and 
Council,  a  measure  which  involved  the  expenditure  of 
over  ^43,000  a  year  in  salaries.  The  Governor  selected 
for  the  post  was  Mr  Philip  Dundas,  who  was  to  receive 
over  ^9000  a  year.  Mr  John  Oliphant  was  appointed 
first  member  of  Council,  and  Mr  Pearson  Secretary. 
At  the  same  time  Raffles  was  appointed  Assistant 
Secretary,  at  a  salary  of  ^^  1500  a  year,  and  the  rank  of 
junior  merchant  in  the  East  India  Company's  service. 
That  Raffles  obtained  at  the  early  age  of  under  twenty- 
four  a  post  which  was  doubtless  sought  by  many  was 
due  to  one  whose  name  must  always  be  held  in  honour 
by  our  hero's  admirers.  Mr  William  Ramsay  had  been 
the  Secretary  of  the  East  India  Company  at  the  time 
of  Raffles  entering  the  office  as  an  extra  clerk.  He 
had  observed  and  prized  the  boy's  capacity  and  zeal. 
He  does  not  appear  to  have  known  the  circumstances 
of  the  Raffles's  family,  a  natural  shame  causing 
Stamford  to  keep  them  in  the  background.  Apart 
altogether  from  those  circumstances,  it  was  natural 
that  he  should  recommend  the  claims  of  one,  who, 
although  not  yet  twenty-four  years  old,  had  done  nearly 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  7 

ten  years  of  hard  work  in  the  office.  In  urging  the 
claims  of  Raffles  to  Sir  Hugh  Inglis,  the  Chairman  of 
the  Company,  Mr  Ramsay  said  that  *in  parting  with 
so  useful  an  assistant  in  his  department,  he  should 
suffer  the  greatest  inconvenience,'  and  that  '  it  would 
be  like  the  loss  of  a  limb  to  him.'  Kindness  done 
to  Raffles  was  never  seed  cast  on  rocky  ground,  and 
we  find  him  in  1812  writing  of  'the  admiration  and 
respect '  with  which  he  looked  up  to  one  '  who  to  me 
was  more  than  a  parent.' 

Although  from  the  first  Raffles  had  been  compelled 
to  take  life  seriously,  it  would  be  to  form  an  altogether 
wrong  view  of  him  to  suppose  him  absorbed  by  his 
studies  or  ambition.  By  nature  he  was  singularly 
sociable,  and  in  after  life  we  are  again  and  again  told 
how  he  found  time  to  combine  with  the  severest  work 
the  relaxations  of  society.  He  had  already  formed  a 
warm  friendship  with  young  Ramsay,  the  son  of  the 
Secretary,  and  his  subsequent  letters  to  him  strike  a 
note  of  genuine  affection  seldom  found  in  the  letters 
of  man  to  man.  Hitherto  society,  except  that  of  his 
family  and  intimates,  had  not  come  into  his  way,  but 
now  that  his  material  means  allowed,  it  was  natural 
that  a  youth  of  sociable  nature,  about  to  be  separated 
from  his  family  and  home  surroundings,  should  take 
to  himself  a  wife.  It  will  be  found  as  a  general  rule 
/that  men  sociably  inclined,  but  who  have  not  the 
opportunity  to  gratify  their  love  of  society,  marry 
young.  To  those  in  earnest  all  roads  lead  to  Rome, 
and  so  the  dull  precincts  of  Leadenhall  Street  were 
able  to  furnish   Raffles  with  a  wife  in  the  person  of 


8  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Mrs  Fancourt,  the  widow  of  an  assistant  surgeon  on 
the  Madras  establishment,  who  came  in  the  autumn 
of  1804  as  an  applicant  for  the  widow's  pension  to 
which  she  had  become  entitled.  It  is  unnecessary 
here  to  dwell  on  idle  gossip,  which  has  been 
sufficiently  disposed  of  by  Mr  Boulger.  Doubtless 
the  action  of  Lady  Raffles  in  relegating  all  mention 
of  her  predecessor  to  a  footnote,  itself  inaccurate, 
suggested  mystery  where  no  mystery  was.  Happily 
it  has  been  clearly  proved  from  Sir  Stamford's  own 
mouth  that  he  married  for  love,  and  that  he  was  well 
rewarded  in  so  doing.  It  is  true  that  his  wife  was 
his  senior  by  ten  years,  but,  as  we  have  seen,  he  was 
in  every  way  old  for  his  age,  so  that  the  argument  of 
the  Duke  in  Twelfth  Night  against  such  marriages 
does  not  apply.  The  marriage,  as  Sir  Stamford 
wrote,  '  gave  me  no  new  connections,  no  wealth,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  a  load  or  debt  which  I  had  to  clear 
off.  It  increased  my  difficulties  and  thus  increased 
my  energies.  It  gave  me  domestic  enjoyment  and 
thus  contributed  to  my  happiness,  but  in  no  way  can 
my  advancement  in  life  be  accounted  owing  to  that 
connection.  .  .  .  When  I  was  about  to  quit  all 
other  ties  and  affections  it  was  natural  that  I  should 
secure  one  bosom  friend,  one  companion  on  my 
journey  who  would  soothe  the  adverse  blasts  of  mis- 
fortune and  gladden  the  sunshine  of  prosperity — but 
what  have  the  public  to  do  with  this  ? '  We  have  not, 
however,  to  depend  upon  Raffles  alone  for  an  estimate 
of  his  first  wife.  Her  portrait  as  she  appeared  to 
ordinary    acquaintances    has     been      drawn     in    the 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  9 

fascinating  Letters  from  India  of  Lord  Minto.  '  Mrs 
Raffles  is  the  great  lady  with  dark  eyes,  lively  manner, 
accomplished  and  clever.'  The  w^ords  of  poets  are  not 
always  to  be  taken  literally,  but  perhaps  Dr  John 
Leyden,  of  whom  we  shall  hear  more  in  the  next 
chapter,  was  more  eminent  for  himself  than  for  his 
poetry,  and  it  was  thus  that  he  addressed  her  : — 

'  Still  may'st  thou  live  in  bliss  secure, 

Beneath  that  friend's  protecting  care, 
And  may  his  cherished  life  endure. 
Long,  long,  thy  holy  love  to  share  !' 

But  most  striking  of  all  is  the  account  given  by  the 
Malay  Abdulla,  a  translation  of  whose  reminiscences, 
Hakayit  Abdulla^  was  published  in  1874. 

'  She  was  not  an  ordinary  woman,  but  was  in  every 
respect  coequal  with  her  husband's  position  and  re- 
sponsibilities ;  behaving  herself  with  propriety,  polite- 
ness and  good  grace.  She  was  very  fond  of  studying 
the  Malay  language,  saying,  "  What  is  this  in  Malay 
— and  what  that  ? "  Also  whatever  she  saw  she 
wrote  down,  and,  whatever  her  husband  intended  to 
undertake,  or  when  buying  anything,  he  always 
deferred  to  her.  Thus,  if  it  pleased  his  wife,  it  pleased 
him.  Further,  her  alacrity  in  all  work  was  apparent  ; 
indeed  she  never  rested  for  a  moment,  but  she  was 
always  busy  day  after  day.  ...  I  never  saw  her 
sleep  at  midday  or  even  reclining  for  the  sake  of  ease. 
.  .  .  Thus  her  habits  were  active  ;  so  much  so,  that 
in  fact,  she  did  the  duty  of  her  husband  ;  indeed  it 
was  she  that  taught  him.     Thus  God  had   matched 


lo  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

them  as  king    and  counsellor,  or  as  a  ring  with   its 
jewels.' 

Having  thus  obtained  for  wife  a  virtuous  woman 
whose  '  price  is  far  above  rubies,'  Raffles  did  not  for- 
get the  claims  upon  him  of  his  own  family.  He 
arranged  that  his  eldest  sister,  Mary  Anne,  should 
accompany  him  to  the  East,  and  so  soon  as  his  salary 
began  he  made  his  father  and  mother  partakers  of  his 
improved  fortunes.  His  father,  who  died  in  1812, 
was  thereby  enabled  to  spend  his  last  years  in  peace, 
while  his  mother,  who  survived  her  husband  another 
twelve  years,  was  secured  in  comfort  and  in- 
dependence. 

The  enforced  leisure  of  the  voyage,  lasting  from 
April  to  September  1805,  was  put  to  good  use  by 
Raffles  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  Malay 
language.  Captain  Travers,  who  first  met  him  in 
1806,  writes  : — '  At  this  time,  which  was  soon  after  his 
arrival,  he  had  acquired  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
Malay  language,  which  he  had  studied  on  the  voyage 
out,  and  was  able  to  speak  and  write  fluently.'  It  was 
in  every  way  most  fortunate  that  our  hero's  capacity 
for  work  included  a  remarkable  facility  in  learning 
languages.  To  teach  oneself  French  seems  a  rather 
hopeless  undertaking,  yet  the  story  is  well  attested 
how,  when  a  lady  was  singing  one  of  Moore's  Melodies, 
Raffles  translated  the  English  into  French  verse  for 
the  benefit  of  some  Frenchmen  present,  and  yet  he 
had  had  little  opportunity  since  his  boyhood  of  con- 
tinuing his  French  studies.       Further    light    on    the 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  ii 

extent  of  his  early  efforts  after  intellectual  improve- 
ment is  thrown  by  the  letter  of  1819  already  quoted, 
'Before  I  left  England  in  1805,  I  had  occasionally 
assisted  in  some  periodical  publications,  and  a  plan  was 
formed,  of  which  I  was  to  take  a  conspicuous  part,  for 
continuing  the  Asiatic  Annual  Register  on  an  enlarged 
and  improved  principle.  The  plan  fell  to  the  ground 
in  consequence  of  my  quitting  England.'  It  is  true 
that  from  one  point  of  view  Raffles's  words  were  pro- 
bably right,  and  that  the  deficiency  of  his  early 
education  was  never  fully  supplied.  His  great  merit 
will  remain  that  he  was  '  a  lover  and  admirer  of  all 
that  he  could  reach  in  literature  and  science.'  ^  His 
contemporaries — witness  the  language  of  W.  Marsden, 
who  describes  him  at  his  death  as  '  well  known  to  the 
literary  and  scientific  world ' — thus  ignoring  his  claim 
to  political  greatness — persisted  in  exalting  this  side  of 
him  at  the  expense,  somewhat,  of  his  claims  to  emin- 
ence as  a  builder  of  the  Empire.  Wiser  himself,  he 
recognised  that  his  chief  claim  in  the  world  of  science 
was  to  have  fostered  and  encouraged  the  pursuits  of 
others  ;  to  have  been  a  scientific  Maecenas  at  a  time 
when  few  colonial  administrators  cared  for  such 
things. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  study  of  the  Malay  language 
by  Raffles  was  to  have  consequences  reaching  far 
beyond  his  reputation  as  a  savant.  It  was  to  be  the 
means  whereby  a  better  understanding  of,  and  thus  a 
closer  sympathy  with,  the  native  mind  should  be 
gained,  and  a  new  spirit  be  breathed  into  the  relations 

■  But  see  note  on  p.  255. 


12  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

between  English  and  natives.  It  speaks  well  tor  the 
strength  and  sobriety  of  his  character  that  a  young 
man  emerging  from  penury  to  what  must  have 
appeared  affluence,  who  had  just  taken  to  himself  a 
charming  and  devoted  wife,  should  have  recognised  at 
once  so  clearly  and  fitted  himself  so  laboriously  for  the 
needs  of  his  new  position. 


CHAPTER    II 

EMBARKS    UPON    *  POLITICAL    RESEARCHES'    (1805-IO) 

Life  at  Penang — Leyden — Visits  Malacca — Minute  on  Proposed 
Abandonment — Its  Success — Appointed  Secretary — Question 
of  Increased  Salary. 

Penang,  or  Prince  of  Wales's  Island,  the  scene  of 
Raffles's  new  duties,  is  an  island  about  fifteen  miles 
in  length,  and  about  nine  miles  in  breadth,  covering 
an  area  of  one  hundred  and  eight  square  miles.  The 
new  Presidency  also  included  Province  Wellesley,  a 
narrow  strip  extending  for  some  forty-five  miles  along 
the  coast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula.  For  many  years 
Penang  enjoyed  a  reputation  as  a  health  resort  which 
it  scarcely  deserved.  In  this  '  paradise '  it  was  solemnly 
affirmed  '  the  operation  of  the  climate  is  almost  in- 
fallible.' The  experience  of  its  Government  tells  a 
very  different  tale.  The  '  operation  '  of  the  climate 
led  to  the  death  of  three  governors  and  of  a  large 
proportion  of  the  new  staff.  Still,  whatever  the 
disappointments  Penang  had  in  store,  nothing  could 
deprive  it  of  the  loveliness  which  is  attested  by 
all  who  have  seen  it.  Lying  'in  the  sunlight  and 
the  sea,'  it  must  have  forthwith  appealed  to 
that  love  of  natural  scenery  which  was  so  leading  a 
feature  in  our  hero's  nature.     The  diary  of  his  future 

13 


14         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

friend  and  aide-de-camp,  Captain  Travers,  gives  a 
vivid  picture  of  the  energy  vi^ith  w^hich  he  threv^^ 
himself  into  his  new  life  :— 

'It  vv^as  in  the  year  1806  that  I  first  became 
acquainted  w^ith  Mr  Raffles  at  the  island  of  Penang. 
He  w^as  then  Deputy-Secretary  to  the  new  Govern- 
ment, which  had  been  recently  sent  out  to  that 
place.  .  .  .  The  details  of  the  Government  pro- 
ceedings, so  far  as  related  to  local  arrangements  and 
regulations,  together  with  the  compilation  of  almost 
every  public  document,  devolved  on  Mr  Raffles,  who 
possessed  great  quickness  and  facility  in  conducting 
and  arranging  the  forms  of  a  new  government,  as 
well  as  in  drawing  up  and  keeping  the  records. 

'The  public  despatches  were  also  entrusted  to  him  ; 
and,  in  fact,  he  had  the  entire  weight  and  trouble 
attendant  on  the  formation  of  a  new  government. 
This,  however,  did  not  prevent  his  attending  closely 
to  improve  himself  in  the  Eastern  languages  ;  and 
whilst  his  mornings  were  employed  in  his  public 
office,  where  at  first  he  had  but  little  assistance, 
his  evenings  were  devoted  to  Eastern  literature. 
Few  men,  but  those  who  were  immediately  on  the 
spot  at  the  time,  can  form  any  idea  of  the  difficult 
task  he  had  to  perform  in  conducting  the  public 
business  of  such  a  government  as  existed  on  the  first 
establishment  of  Penang  as  a  Presidency.  It  would 
be  irrelevant  here  to  allude  to,  or  to  attempt  any 
description  of,  the  different  characters  of  whom  this 
Government  was  formed,  the  more  particularly  so  as 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  15 

they  are  all  now  dead,  but  it  is  due  to  Mr  Raffles  to 
state  that  he  was  respected  and  consulted  by  every 
member  of  it.  In  his  official  capacity  he  gave  most 
general  satisfaction,  whilst  the  settlers  looked  up  to 
him  for  advice  and  assistance  in  every  difficulty  ; 
and  when  he  afterwards  became  Chief  Secretary, 
the  most  general  satisfaction  was  evinced  through- 
out the  settlement. 

'  Being  of  a  cheerful,  lively  disposition,  and  very 
fond  of  society,  it  was  surprising  how  he  was  able  to 
entertain  so  hospitably  as  he  did,  and  yet  labour  so 
much  as  he  was  known  to  do  at  the  time,  not  only 
in  his  official  capacity,  but  in  acquiring  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  history,  government  and  local 
interests  of  the  neighbouring  states ;  and  this  he 
was  greatly  aided  in  doing  by  conversing  freely  with 
the  natives,  who  were  constantly  visiting  Penang  at 
this  period,  many  of  whom  were  often  found  to  be 
sensible,  intelligent  men,  and  greatly  pleased  to  find  a 
person  holding  Mr  Raffles's  situation  able  and  anxious 
to  converse  with  them  in  their  own  language.' 

Of  one  thing  laid  to  its  charge  it  would  seem  that 
Prince  of  Wales's  Island  must  stand  acquitted.  From 
the  light  thrown  on  the  situation  by  Raffles's  corre- 
spondence with  his  intimate  friend,  young  Ramsay, 
we  learn  that  the  leave  of  absence  obtained  in  August 
1806  by  Mr  Pearson,  the  Secretary,  was  due  as  much 
to  '  not  drawing  well  with  the  Hon.  the  Governor ' 
as  to  reasons  of  health.  'I  have,  in  fact,'  writes 
Raffles    in   January    1807,    'done    nearlv    the    whole 


i6         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

duty  of  Secretary  and  Deputy  since  I  have  been  on 
the  island,  but  for  the  last  four  months  I  have  done 
so  to  the  knowledge  of  every  person  and  publicly. 
...  I  am  now  acting  Malay  Translator,  but  under 
similar  circumstances  as  I  am  acting  Secretary,  with 
all  the  honour  and  labour  but  no  emolument.  .  .  . 
I  would  almost  do  the  duty  for  nothing,  because  it 
is  what  I  have  so  forcibly  set  my  mind  upon.'  The 
strain  of  work,  however,  was  great.  '  There  is  about 
three  times  the  business  in  the  Secretary's  office  as 
there  is  in  England,  and  not  one-twentieth  of  the 
assistance.  .  .  .  Scarce  ^  letter  has  gone  out,  however 
trifling,  that  I  have  not  drafted,  and  I  have  not  one 
right-hand  man.' 

As  time  passes  his  letters  begin  to  strike  a  more 
melancholy  note.  At  first  he  had  stood  'on  the 
best  footing  possible  with  the  present  Government. 
They  leave  everything  to  me  that  I  wish,  and  are 
satisfied  with  mv  conduct ' ;  but  soon  the  jealousies, 
which  are  the  curse  of  small  communities,  began  to 
show  themselves.  Raffles,  although  the  real  motive 
force  of  the  Government,  had  not  the  rank  or  status 
which  a  seat  in  the  Council  could  alone  confer,  and 
he  suffered  much  from  the  overbearing  demeanour 
of  men  who  could  thus  revenge  on  him  their 
recognised  inferiority.  '  A  Secretary,'  Raffles  wrote 
in  November  1808,  'is  in  general  the  organ,  but  in 
some  places  the  very  soul.  1  am  neither  the  one 
nor  the  other.  We  have  not  abilities  to  admit  of 
my  being  the  former,  nor  liberality  to  allow  the 
latter.     You  may  therefore  guess  the  situation.  .  .  . 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  17 

The  arrogance  that  a  temporary  exaltation  has  given 
to  some  is  scarce  to  be  borne  with  except  by  such  a 
patient  body  as  me.'' 

More  serious  reasons  for  anxiety  were  not  wanting. 
Raffles  began  to  recognise  that  he  could  not  go  on 
indefinitely  working  at  such  high  pressure.  '  My 
health  is  not  altogether  what  it  was,  and  I  dread 
a  constant  fag  for  years'  (October  1807).  He 
therefore  longed  for  the  promise  of  a  seat  in  the 
Council.  '  A  rest  in  the  Council  Chamber,  about 
three  or  four  years  hence,  will  enable  me  afterwards 
to  get  on,  and  the  prospect  of  it  beforehand  will 
serve  to  keep  up  my  spirits.'  In  the  preceding 
summer  he  had  written,  '  I  think  five  years  Secretary 
as  much  as  I  can  stand.'  Unhappily,  instead  of  work 
diminishing,  it  tended  to  increase.  In  1807  a  new 
Charter  of  Justice  was  proclaimed  in  Prince  of  Wales's 
Island,  and  a  Recorder,  Sir  Edward  Stanley,  entered 
upon  his  duties.  On  his  arrival  '  all  was  confusion 
here,  and  that  Court  could  not  have  been  established 
had  not  I  come  forward  and  voluntarily  acted  as 
Registrar  Clerk  of  the  Crown,'  etc.  (November 
1808).  'War  was  brewing,'  he  adds,  'between 
Sir  E.  Stanley  and  the  Government.  Stepping 
between  them  judiciously,  I  am  confident  that  I 
stopped  a  breach  which  might  never  afterwards 
have  been  filled  up.' 

Be  this  as  it  may,  Raffles  was  very  nearly  bringing 
his  own  career  to  a  close.  In  1808  he  broke  down 
under  the  strain  of  over-exertion,  and  all  but  died  of 
jaundice    and  a  diseased   liver.      '  This  is  the  second 

B 


i8  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

attack,'  he  writes  in  November  1808.  'I  must 
beware  of  the  third.' 

Out  of  evil,  however,  proceeded  good,  and  the 
visit  of  Raffles  to  Malacca,  in  the  search  of  health, 
proved  to  be  a  new  starting-point  in  his  public  career. 
It  is  true  that  he  had  been  ordered  by  the  doctors  to 
drop  altogether  his  study  of  the  native  languages,  but 
this  gave  him  the  more  inclination  to  appear  upon 
the  political  stage.  '  Political  researches,'  he  writes, 
'  are  most  required,  and  with  the  view  of  seeing  how 
such  would  be  received  I  have  thrown  off  a  report  on 
Malacca.  .  .  .  You  know  I  am  always  famous  for 
possessing  public  spirit.  I  have  not  lost  one  spark  of 
it.'  In  order  to  understand  why  the  report  of  an 
obscure  civil  servant  obtained  so  ready  a  hearing  it  is 
necessary  to  go  back  a  little  in  time. 

Towards  the  close  of  1805  there  appeared  at 
Penang  a  visitor  whose  friendship  was  to  have  an 
important  influence  over  Raifies's  fortunes.  Mention 
has  already  been  made  of  the  verses  which  John 
Leyden  addressed  to  Olivia  Raffles,  but  the  man,  as 
sometimes  happens,  was  in  himself  greater  than  can 
be  recognised  in  his  rather  conventional  verse.  '  Few 
can  need  to  be  reminded  that  this  extraordinary  man, 
born  in  a  shepherd's  cottage,  in  one  of  the  wildest 
valleys  of  Roxburghshire,  and  of  course  almost  entirely 
self-educated,  had,  before  he  attained  his  nineteenth 
year,  confounded  the  doctors  of  Edinburgh  by  the 
portentous  mass  of  his  acquisitions  in  almost  every 
department  of  learning.  He  had  set  the  extremest 
penury  at  utter  defiance,  or  rather  he  had  never  been 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  19 

conscious  that  it  could  operate  as  a  bar  ;  for  bread 
and  water  and  access  to  books  and  lectures  comprised 
all  within  the  bound  of  his  wishes,  and  thus  he  toiled 
and  battled  at  the  gates  of  science  after  science,  until 
his  unconquerable  perseverance  carried  everything 
before  it  ;  and  yet  with  this  monastic  abstemiousness 
and  iron  hardness  of  will,  perplexing  those  about  him 
by  manners  and  habits  in  which  it  was  hard  to  say 
whether  the  moss  trooper  or  the  scholar  of  former 
days  most  prevailed,  he  was  at  heart  a  poet.'  The 
man  who  could  draw  such  language  from  the  critical 
Lockhart  must  have  been  no  ordinary  man.  Dis- 
appointed in  his  expectations  of  obtaining  preferment 
in  the  clerical  profession,  he  had  accepted  an  offer  of 
an  Assistant  Surgeonship  under  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. He  landed  in  India  in  1803,  and  soon  found 
ample  scope  for  his  great  abilities.  The  stress  of 
work  as  surgeon  and  naturalist  to  the  Commission, 
which  surveyed  Mysore,  occasioned  the  need  of  the 
holiday  which  brought  him  to  Penang.  During  this 
stay  he  made  good  use  of  his  time  by  a  careful  study 
of  the  language,  manners  and  religion  of  the  Malay 
race.  It  may  easily  be  imagined  how  congenial  to 
Raffles  was  such  companionship.  Leyden's  manners 
were  uncourtly.  He  was  given  to  usurping  the  con- 
versation. His  voice  was  loud  and  strident,  had  little 
or  no  modulation,  and  smacked  of  the  provincial 
dialect  of  his  native  heather.  Of  his  own  merit  he 
had  the  highest  opinion,  but  such  opinion  might  be 
forgiven  to  one  who  deserved  so  much.  In  any  case 
these  were    not    faults  to  frighten   the   eager   young 


20        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

student,  upon  whose  studies  the  doctors  had  not  yet 
pronounced  their  veto.  It  is  pleasant  to  note  that 
Raffles's  esteem  was  fully  reciprocated.  If  it  was 
true  that  'in  his  judgment  of  men,  and  his  value  of 
their  society  and  acquaintance '  Leyden  '  was  guided 
solely  by  their  moral  and  intellectual  worth,'  it  is  high 
praise  for  Raffles  that  he  was  numbered  at  once 
amongst  Leyden's  most  intimate  friends. 

At  the  time  of  this  visit  Leyden  had  been  a  seeker 
after  fortune  as  was  Raffles,  but  in  the  following  year 
an  event  occurred  which  made  him  a  political  person- 
age. The  arrival  of  a  Governor-General,  who  was 
an  Elliot  of  Teviotdale,  who  loved  scholarship  and 
genuineness,  and  knew  a  man  when  he  saw  one,  was 
the  turning-point  in  Leyden's  fortunes.  In  the 
different  posts  to  which  he  was  promoted  he  had  the 
ear  of  Lord  Minto,  and  was  of  course  mindful  of  his 
old  friend.  Hence  when  Raffles  expressed  his  views 
regarding  Malacca,  it  was  secured  that  they  should 
receive  an  attentive  consideration  from  the  highest 
authority,  and  not  be  tossed  aside  in  the  pressure  of 
daily  work. 

Malacca,  one  of  the  earliest  and  the  most  important 
emporia  of  eastern  trade,  had  been  captured  by  the 
Dutch  from  the  Portuguese  in  164 1.  It  was  taken 
by  the  English  under  Major  Brown  in  1795.  It  was 
part  of  the  scheme  under  which  Penang  was  raised 
into  a  separate  Presidency  that  Malacca  should  be 
abandoned.  The  intention  was  gradually  to  transfer 
to  Prince  of  Wales's  Island  the  trade  and  capital  of 
Malacca,  together  with  the  most  valuable  part  of  the 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  21 

population.  Meanwhile  the  fort  was  to  be  demolished, 
a  measure  which  was  carried  out  in  the  course  of  1807. 
('  A  most  useless  piece  of  gratuitous  mischief,  as  far  as 
I  can  understand  the  subject.' — Lord  Minto.)  The 
quick  eye  of  Raffles  promptly  discovered  how  hope- 
less must  be  any  attempt  to  divert  to  Prince  of  Wales's 
Island  the  trade  and  population  of  Malacca.  His  very 
able  minute  on  the  subject  marks  his  first  appearance 
upon  the  scene  of  imperial  as  opposed  to  local  politics. 
More  than  three-fourths  of  a  population  of  some 
twenty  thousand,  he  points  out,  had  been  born  in 
Malacca,  where  their  families  had  been  settled  for 
centuries.  '  The  Malays,  a  class  of  people  not  gener- 
ally valued  as  subjects,  are  here  industrious  and  useful 
members  of  society  ;  attached  to  the  place  from  their 
birth,  they  are  accustomed  to  the  local  regulations  ; 
and  in  the  bosom  of  their  family  feel  that  they  are  at 
home.  Their  peculiarities  are  attended  to,  their  rank 
respected,  and  their  necessities  easily  supplied.  .  .  . 
From  the  antiquity  and  former  celebrity  of  the  place 
it  follows  that  the  country  is  well  cultivated,  and 
that  valuable  buildings,  public  and  private,  have  been 
erected  by  the  inhabitants.  .  .  .  The  prejudices  of 
the  natives  are  too  well  known  to  require  comment 
here  ;  and  it  is  no  common  advantage  that  will  induce 
them  to  quit  the  tombs  of  their  ancestors,  their 
temples  sacred  to  the  Deity,  their  independence,  and 
estates  on  which  they  depend  for  their  livelihood  and 
respectability.  The  inhabitants  of  Malacca  are  very 
different  from  what  they  appear  to  have  been  con- 
sidered.     Three-fourths  of  the   native   population   or 


22        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Prince  of  Wales's  Island  might,  with  little  encourage- 
ment, be  induced  to  remove,  having  no  fixed  or 
permanent  property  ;  adventurers,  ready  to  turn  their 
hands  to  any  employment.  But  the  case  is  very 
different  with  the  native  inhabitants  of  Malacca.  .  .  . 
The  inhabitants  that  remain  are  mostly  proprietors 
of  property  or  connected  with  those  that  are  ;  and 
those  possessing  independence  from  their  gardens, 
fishing,  and  the  small  traffic  of  the  place.  .  .  .  From 
every  appearance  it  seems  they  have  determined  to 
remain  by  Malacca,  let  its  fate  be  what  it  will.  .  .  . 
The  offer  made  by  Government  of  paying  the 
passage  of  such  as  would  embark  for  Penang  was 
not  accepted  by  a  single  individual.  .  .  .  The  natives 
consider  the  British  faith  as  pledged  for  their  pro- 
tection. When  the  settlement  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  English,  they  were  invited  to  remain  ;  pro- 
tection and  even  encouragement  were  offered  them. 
The  latter  has  long  ago  ceased,  and  they  are  in  daily 
expectation  of  losing  the  former.  For  our  protection 
they  are  willing  to  make  great  sacrifices  ;  and  they 
pay  the  heavy  duties  imposed  on  them,  with  the 
cheerfulness  of  faithful  and  obedient  subjects.  The 
revenues  of  Malacca  are  never  in  arrear.'  Supposing 
the  removal  to  be  carried  through,  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  pay  some  500,000  dollars  as  compensation  to 
the  European  inhabitants,  but,  admitting  that  this 
were  granted  and  the  population  actually  removed, 
'  what  check  could  be  placed  over  emigration  ? '  He 
then  entered  upon  an  elaborate  examination  of  the 
Bugguese   or    Eastern    trade,  and    demonstrated    that 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  23 

by  its  nature  '  it  is  apparent  that  if  the  duties  of 
Malacca  were  lowered  to  the  standard  of  Penang, 
very  few  prows  would  proceed  further  up  the  Straits  ; 
and  that  the  portion  now  stopping  at  Malacca  is  not 
of  a  description  to  be  forced  further  on  but  .  .  . 
would  either  cease  altogether,  or  attain  its  object  at 
a  less  advantage,  at  the  native  ports  of  Rhio  or  of 
the  Dutch  at  Java.'  Upon  the  whole  the  conclusion 
arrived  at  was  that  'it  is  now  a  trade  almost  ex- 
clusively belonging  to  Malacca  from  its  natural 
advantages.' 

More  important  interests  even  than  those  of  trade 
were,  however,  at  stake.  '  Malacca,  having  been  in 
the  possession  of  a  European  power  for  three  centuries, 
and  even  previously  to  that  period  considered  as  the 
capital  of  the  Malay  States,  has  obtained  so  great  an 
importance  in  the  eyes  of  the  native  princes,  that  they 
are  ever  anxious  to  obtain  the  friendship  of  the  nation 
in  whose  hands  it  may  be.  Its  name  carries  more 
weight  to  a  Malay  ear  than  any  new  settlement,  what- 
ever its  importance.'  Malacca,  in  the  handsof  a  native 
prince,  would  be  another,  but  more  dangerous,  Rhio. 
But  would  it  remain  in  the  hands  of  a  native  prince  ? 
Its  '  possession  will  ever  be  a  most  desirable  object  to 
a  European  power  and  to  our  enemy.  ...  It  is  well 
known  that  the  Dutch  Government  had  it  in  con- 
templation to  make  Malacca  a  free  port,  with  the 
view  of  destroying  the  English  settlement  at  Penang.' 
'  The  public  works,'  he  added,  '  may  be  demolished, 
the  principal  buildings  levelled  with  the  earth  from 
which   thev  sprung,  but   Malacca,   in   its  facilities  for 


24  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

trade,  its  extent  of  cultivation,  its  permanent  style  of 
native  buildings,  must  remain  the  same.  Fortifica- 
tions can  in  a  short  time  be  destroyed  by  the  fiat  of 
man,  but  who  shall  direct  the  forests  to  reassume  their 
former  extent,  or  the  country  of  Malacca  at  once  to 
become  an  impenetrable  forest  and  unhealthy  sw^amp  ? 
The  industry  of  ages  has  been  too  effectually  and  too 
successfully  exerted  to  be  effaced  vi^ith  common  trouble. 
Time  and  the  exterminating  sw^ord  alone  will  ever 
be  able  to  reduce  it  to  its  original  state  ;  and,  when  it 
is  so  reduced,  it  will  always  be  an  object  of  importance 
to  our,  European  enemy,  as  well  on  account  of  its  supe- 
rior advantages  in  trade  and  produce,  as  of  its  capability 
of  annoying  and  effectually  destroying  the  English 
interests  at  Penang.'  During  the  continuance  of  the 
war  the  present  arrangements  were  of  a  temporary 
character,  but  should  it  be  decided,  on  the  conclusion 
of  peace,  to  retain  Malacca,  and  to  make  it  a  British 
settlement,  its  real  advantages  would  be  seen.  '  Ceded 
to  the  English,  its  rivalship  with  Penang  would  cease. 
No  longer  the  oppressor  and  oppressed,  they  would 
mutually  assist  each  other.  The  revenues  of  Malacca 
would  immediately  increase,  while  the  Dutch  law 
might  be  abolished  by  proclamation  from  His  Majesty, 
and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Court  at  Prince  of  Wales's 
Island  with  ease  extended  in  its  room.'  Again  : 
'  With  the  assistance  of  Malacca,  the  whole  of  the 
Malay  Rajahs  in  the  Straits  and  to  the  eastward  might 
be  rendered  not  only  subservient,  but,  if  necessary, 
tributary.' 

The   most   careless   reader   will    recognise   in  these 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  25 

extracts  a  ring  not  often  found  in  official  utterances. 
Here  was  a  subordinate  official  of  twenty-seven  years 
old  meddling  with  what  did  not  directly  concern  him, 
but  who  spoke  as  one  having  authority,  however 
respectful  and  modest  the  form  of  his  language. 
What  might  have  been  the  fate  of  the  Report  at 
another  time  is  doubtful,  but  fortunately  Lord  Minto 
was  Governor-General  and  Leyden  in  a  position  of 
influence  and  authority.  The  paper  was  duly  sub- 
mitted by  the  Penang  authorities  with  a  covering 
letter  of  warm  approval,  but  Raffles  appears  to  have 
sent  another  copy  direct  to  Leyden  for  the  perusal  of 
Lord  Minto,  and  Leyden  wrote  (October  9,  1809)  : — 
'  I  laid  before  him  without  delay  the  MSS.  concerrl- 
ing  Malacca,  with  which  he  was  greatly  pleased, 
and  desired  me  to  say  he  should  be  gratified  in  re- 
ceiving immediately  from  yourself  any  communi- 
cations respecting  the  Eastern  parts  of  a  similar 
nature.' 

Already,  in  the  previous  year.  Lord  Minto  had 
said,  '  The  Malay  language  has  been  successfully 
cultivated  by  Mr  Raffles  .  .  .  who,  much  to  his 
honour,  has  long  been  employed  in  compiling  a  code 
of  .  .  .  Malay  laws  from  the  best  authorities  in  the 
Malay  and  Bugguese  languages.'  In  these  circum- 
stances, tlie  Report  was  sure  of  a  careful  considera- 
tion ;  its  weighty  arguments  convinced  not  only  the 
Governor-General,  but  also  the  Court  of  Directors. 
'  We  have  also,'  the  Court  of  Directors  wrote  in 
November  1809,  'perused  with  much  attention  the 
Report  prepared  by  your  Secretary,  Mr  Raffles.  .  .  . 


26  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

This  document  has  in  so  comprehensive  a  manner 
laid  open  to  our  view  the  present  circumstances  of 
the  settlement  of  Malacca,  and  the  dangers  which 
may  arise  by  the  total  abandonment  of  it,  that  we 
agree  as  a  temporary  measure  to  the  continuance  of 
the  present  establishment  there.' 

Raffles  had  been  wise  in  his  generation  in  the  manner 
in  which  he  had  touched  the  financial  side  of  the 
question.  The  Court  of  Directors  agreed  'the  more 
readily,  as  we  find  that  the  charges,  including  every 
possible  contingency,  are  fully  provided  for  by  the 
revenues  of  the  place.'  The  paragraph  concluded  with 
a  cordial  recognition  of  Raffles's  services  couched  in 
official  phraseology — '  We  desire  that  you  will  com- 
municate to  that  gentleman  that  we  entertain  a 
favourable  sense  of  the  talents  he  has  evinced  upon 
that  occasion.' 

It  was  the  peculiar  excellence  of  Raffles  that  he 
succeeded  in  fusing,  to  the  benefit  of  both,  the  claims 
of  practical  politics  and  theoretical  science.  Just  as 
at  a  later  date  his  choice  of  Singapore  as  a  British 
station  was  based  on  the  traditions  of  its  past  history,^ 
so  study  as  well  as  observation  had  assisted  his  con- 
clusions with  regard  to  the  retention  of  Malacca.  It 
was  thus  natural  enough  that,  at  the  same  time  as  he 
was  forwarding  his  Report  on  Malacca,  he  should 
submit  to  the  Calcutta  Asiatic  Society  a  paper  on 
the  Malay  nation,  with  a  translation  of  its  maritime 
institutions. 

'  It  does  not  matter  in  this  connection  that  Raffles  may  have  been 
uncritical  in  his  acceptance  as  fact  of  pure  tradition. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  27 

In  this  he  maintained  that  the  Malay  nation  was 
one  people,  speaking  one  language,  though  spread 
over  so  wide  a  space,  and  preserving  their  character 
and  customs  in  all  the  maritime  states  lying  between 
the  Sulu  Seas  and  the  Southern  Ocean,  and  bounded 
longitudinally  by  Sumatra  and  the  western  side  ot 
New  Guinea.  '  The  most  natural  theory  on  the 
origin  of  the  Malays '  was  '  that  they  did  not  exist  as 
a  separate  and  distinct  nation  until  the  arrival  of  the 
Arabians  in  the  Eastern  seas.'  They  appeared  '  to  have 
been  gradually  formed  a  nation  and  separated  from 
their  original  stock  by  the  admixture  of  Arab  blood 
and  the  introduction  of  the  Arabic  language  and 
Moslem  religion.' 

While  he  was  thus  usefully  employing  this  period  of 
enforced  leisure,  observing  and  mixing  with  the  varied 
population  congregated  from  all  parts  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, '  a  ship  arrived  at  Malacca  from  Penang, 
bringing  intelligence  of  her  having  left  a  vessel  in  the 
harbour  about  to  proceed  to  England.  Mr  Raffles, 
knowing  the  necessity  of  sending  despatches  by  the 
first  opportunity,  and  well  aware  that  in  his  absence 
the  Government  would  find  great  difficulty  in  pre- 
paring them,  determined  on  proceeding  there  without 
delay,  although  strongly  urged  to  remain  whilst  his 
health  was  so  fast  improving  ;  but  it  was  impossible 
to  dissuade  him  from  what  he  thought  to  be  a  public 
duty.'  He  therefore  chartered  a  pleasure-boat,  and  in 
this  small  craft  '  he  reached  Penang  in  good  time  to 
relieve  Government  from  a  weight  of  care  and  anxiety, 
which,  I  believe,  was  freely  acknowledged  at  the  time.' 


28  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

That  Raffles  did  not  unduly  magnify  his  own 
importance  is  shown  by  the  amazingly  urgent  letter 
which  meanwhile  had  been  addressed  to  him  by 
Governor  Macalister.  '  It  is  distressing  to  me,  my 
dear  sir,  to  be  under  the  necessity  of  stating  in  this 
pointed  manner  the  unavoidable  exigence  of  the  case, 
but  such  is  the  case  that  we  shall  not  be  able  to  make 
up  any  despatches  for  the  Court  without  your  assist- 
ance. .  .  .  With  the  exception  of  Mr  Phillips,  the 
rest  of  the  Board  can  give  but  little  assistance  in 
making  out  the  general  letter,  none,  however,  so 
little  as  myself.' 

Considering  the  questions  of  high  policy  which 
were  at  the  time  occupying  him,  and  the  oppor- 
tunities which  he  was  enjoying  of  pursuing  his 
favourite  studies,  Raffles's  hasty  return  to  the  dull 
routine  of  his  ordinary  duties  testifies  more  than  pages 
of  panegyric  what  manner  of  man  he  was. 

Meanwhile,  in  treating  of  the  visit  to  Malacca,  we 
have  broken  the  thread  of  the  narrative  as  it  concerns 
Prince  of  Wales's  Island.  Mr  Oliphant,  the  senior 
member  of  Council,  and  Mr  Dundas,  the  Governor, 
had  died  in  the  months  of  March  and  April  1807. 
Mr  Pearson,  who  had  returned  from  his  leave  of 
absence,  obtained  the  vacant  seat  in  the  Council,  and 
Raffles  was  appointed  Secretary,  in  name  as  well 
as  in  fact,  with  an  increased  salary.  About  the 
same  time  he  was  appointed  Agent  for  the  Navy. 
The  new  Governor,  Macalister,  wrote  to  the 
Directors  ^  of  the  unwearied  zeal  and  assiduity  with 
which  he  has,  since  the  formation  of  the  establishment, 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  29 

devoted  his  talents  to  the  furtherance  of  the  Com^ 
pany's  interests,  his  unremitting  attention  to  the 
duties  of  the  most  laborious  office  under  the  Govern- 
ment, added  to  those  of  Registrar' of  the  Recorder's 
Court.'  In  fact,  the  zeal  of  the  Penang  Government 
on  Raffles's  behalf  was  to  cause  him  considerable 
trouble  and  inconvenience.  It  was  decided  (1807)  to 
re-adjust  salaries  so  that  the  Secretary  should  receive  an 
additional  ;r6oo,  or  ^2600  in  all,  while  the  Assistant 
Secretary  should  only  receive  _^900.  '  The  allowance 
granted  ...  to  the  assistants  when  these  offices  were 
bestowed  upon  experienced  persons  selected  from  your 
service  in  England,  to  whom  a  superior  rank  has  been 
attached,  not  appearing  to  us  to  apply  to  the  case  of  the 
young  men  sent  out  as  writers  on  this  establishment.' 
The  Court  of  Directors  had  no  objection  to  the 
reduction  of  the  Assistant  Secretary's  salary,  but 
highly  disapproved  of  the  increase  in  the  pay  of  the 
Secretary.  They  could  not  admit  that  '  because  the 
salary  of  one  office  will  bear  reduction,  another  is 
therefore  to  be  increased  in  a  proportionate  degree.' 
Considering  the  drain  which  Prince  of  Wales's  Island 
involved  upon  the  resources  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, and  how  little  had  come  of  the  high  hopes  upon 
which  it  had  been  started,  there  was  nothing  un- 
reasonable in  the  decision  of  the  Directors.  What 
does  seem  unreasonable  is  that  the  decision  was  con- 
veyed in  a  letter  dated  April  28,  1809,  more  than  a 
year  after  they  had  received  news  of  the  alteration. 
In  this  letter  they  ordered  that  '  Mr  Raffles  be  called 
upon    to    refund    the    amount    which    he    mav    have 


30  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

received    over    and    above    the    sum    of   ^8000    per 
annum.' 

At  the  time  of  the  receipt  of  this  order  Raffles  had 
already  been  paid  ^1625  additional  salary,  so  that  the 
command  to  refund  came  as  a  bombshell.  Although 
the  salary  of  ^2000  may  seem  ample  for  a  young 
man,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  cost  of  living 
at  Penang  was  proverbially  high.  Mr  Boulger  quotes 
a  letter  to  the  effect  that  '  a  dollar  does  not  go  as  far 
as  a  rupee  in  the  other  Presidencies.'  House  rent  w^as 
an  especially  heavy  item,  and  Raffles  paid  ^^300  per 
annum  for  his  house  '  Runnymede.'  Moreover,  in 
considering  Raffles's  means,  it  must  be  remembered 
how^  heavy  were  the  claims  on  him  of  his  own  family. 
As  early  as  January  1807  we  find  him  sending  home 
^400  to  meet  the  outstanding  liabilities.  His  eldest 
sister,  Mary  Anne,  who  had  accompanied  him  to 
Penang,  married  shortly  after  her  arrival  a  Mr 
Quintin  Dick,  the  holder  of  a  good  appointment. 
Mr  Dick,  however,  died  suddenly  in  1809,  so  that 
the  widow  and  three  children  were  dependent  upon 
Raffles  until  she  married  again  in  1811.  In  1810 
the  family  circle  had  been  enlarged  by  the  arrival  of 
his  younger  sisters  Harriet  and  Leonora.  It  was  the 
number  of  these  claims  which  doubtless  led  Raffles 
to  remark  that  he  was  poorer  now  than  three  months 
before  he  left  England. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  few  in  Raffles's  position  could 
have  immediately  repaid  the  ^1600  thus  abruptly 
demanded  of  him.  In  a  dignified  and  convincing 
letter   (February    18 10)    he    pointed  out,    'Had    the 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  31 

arrangement  been  expressed  or  understood  to  have  been 
in  anyway  provisional  or  conditional,  or  had  it  been  made 
inconsequence  of  any  representation  or  effected  by  any 
act  of  my  own,  I  should,  of  course,  have  held  myself 
liable  to  refund  what  the  Honourable  Court  might 
disapprove  of,  but  in  receiving  what  was  voluntarily 
authorised  by  your  Hon.  Board,  I  felt  that  I  might 
justly  avail  myself  of  its  advantages  in  discharging 
the  heavy  incumbrances  which  necessarily  devolved 
on  me  in  my  first  establishment  in  this  country, 
and  in  aiding  such  parts  of  my  family  as  stood  in  need 
of  my  support  and  assistance  ;  and  at  this  moment 
most  solemnly  do  I  assure  your  Honourable  Board  of 
my  total  inability  to  comply  with  the  unexpected  and 
heavy  demands  now  made  nearly  three  years  subse- 
quent to  my  appointment.  The  circumstance  of  the 
office  devolving  on  me  at  the  time,  without  the  aid  of 
an  experienced  assistant,  of  which  my  predecessors 
had  the  advantage,  added  to  the  serious  illnesses  under 
which  I  have  laboured,  brought  on  chiefly  from  close 
attention  to  duty  and  a  constant  anxiety  to  benefit  the 
public  service  as  far  as  lay  in  my  power,  will,  I  hope, 
meet  with  your  favourable  consideration.' 

The  Prince  of  Wales's  Island  Government  zealously 
espoused  Raffles's  cause.  In  the  special  circumstances 
of  the  case,  they  decided  to  postpone  the  carrying  out 
of  the  Directors'  order  until  they  had  again  written 
home.     In  a  covering  letter  they  warmly  supported 

Raffles's  appeal.     At  the  time  no  decision  was  arrived 
at    by    the    Court  of  Directors,  and   it  was  not  till 

i8iy,   on    our    hero's   return    to    England    after    his 


32  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

government    or   Java,    that    the    Court    of  Directors 
finally  vs^aived  their  claim  to  this  ^162^. 

Meanwhile,  even  before  this  anxiety  was  added, 
Raffles  had  been  seriously  perturbed  by  the  fear  lest 
he  should  break  down  under  the  strain  of  his  present 
work.  In  a  letter  already  quoted  (November  1808), 
he  says,  '  I  am  convinced  my  health  will  never  permit 
of  my  holding  this  office  many  years.  If,  therefore,  I 
am  not  to  look  for  a  seat  in  Council,  or  some  quiet 
place  in  the  Government,  I  must  either  fall  a  sacrifice 
or  apply  for  the  first  vacancy  in  the  collectorship  or 
other  subordinate  office.  My  constitution  was  always 
delicate  ;  with  care  I  have  no  doubt  it  could  last  as 
long  here  as  in  England,  without  it  it  will  soon  break 
up.  The  fatigue,'  he  adds,  '  of  merely  writing  this 
letter  gives  me  excruciating  pain.  ...  I  am  afraid 
they  will  work  the  willing  horse  to  death  ;  all  I 
ask  is  to  see  the  end  of  it.' 


CHAPTER    III 

AGENT    TO    THE    GOVERNOR-GENERAL    WITH    THE 
MALAY    STATES    (181O-II) 

Political  Situation — Capture  of  Moluccas — Suggested  as  Governor 
— Visits  Calcutta — Lord  MintQ — Headquarters,  Malacca — 
AbduUa — Reports  from  Malacca — Java  Expedition. 

Valuable  as  were  the  services  of  Raffles  in  Prince  of 
Wales's  Island,  they  did  not  differ  in  kind  from  such  as 
are  daily  being  performed  by  many  Indian  Civil  ser- 
vants unknown  to  fame.  Physical  reasons  prevented 
Penang  from  ever  taking  the  leading  position  intended 
for  it  under  the  scheme  of  the  East  India  Company. 
It  was  therefore  desirable  that  Raffles  should  obtain 
a  more  commanding  stage  on  which  to  play  his  part. 
The  annexation  by  the  French  Republic  of  the 
Dutch  colonies  threatened  seriously  to  alter  the 
situation  in  the  East.  The  Dutch  had  been  rigid 
monopolists,  and  Englishmen,  in  the  East  especially, 
had  no  cause  to  love  the  nation  which  had  been  guilty 
of  the  massacre  at  Amboyna.  Nevertheless  the 
political  weakness  of  Holland  forbade  that  its  colonies 
should  be  a  menace  to  the  British  possessions.  But 
when  Holland  became  an  annexe  of  France,  the 
situation  was  completely  altered.     The  battle  of  the 

C 


34  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Nile  scotched  but  did  not  kill   Napoleon's  aspirations 
for  Asiatic  dominion.     The  part  that  might  be  played 
by  Java  in  opposing  British  interests  had  been  recog- 
nised as  early  as   1797   by  General  Daendels,  but  the 
naval  strength  of  England   in    European  waters  had 
prevented  the  Dutch  from  active  operations.     After 
the    resumption    of    hostilities   which    followed    the 
Treaty  of  Amiens,  Marshal   Daendels  was  sent  out 
in    1807   to  Java  to   reorganise   the    Dutch    colonial 
forces,  and  to  strengthen  the  defences  of  the  island. 
Meanwhile  the  Isle  of  France  and  Bourbon  had  been 
fortified    with    additional    troops,  so    that    it    became 
necessary  for  the  English  to  take  the  initiative  unless 
they  were  to  be  forestalled.     The  Whig  Ministry  of 
1806   had   been  favourable  to  such  undertakings,  but 
the    financial    situation   of  the    Company   barred   the 
way,    and,    on    the    return    of  Lord    Castlereagh    to 
power.    Lord    Minto    considered    himself  bound    by 
a   positive   prohibition   of  any  expedition   to  Java    or 
other  place  eastward  of  India  made  by  that  Minister 
when  previously  in  office. 

The  British  fleet  did  not,  however,  remain  idle, 
and  the  destruction  of  four  Dutch  men-of-war  at  the 
close  of  1807  was  followed  by  the  unpremeditated 
capture  of  the  Moluccas. 

'  The  Governor-General,'  Raffles  states,  '  refused 
to  take  charge  of  these  islands  on  account  of  the 
Company,  and  the  naval  commander  hardly  felt 
himself  warranted  in  establishing  a  King's  Govern- 
ment, but,  as  the  decision  was  left  with  him,  he 
proposed    to    the    Governor-General,    who   was    then 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  35 

at  Madras,  that  I  should  be  nominated  to  the  charge, 
and  a  provisional  administration  established  pending 
a  reference  to  Europe.  Lord  Minto  immediately- 
replied  that  I  was  not  unknown  to  him,  that  he 
was  perfectly  satisfied  of  my  fitness  and  claims,  and 
that  he  would  immediately  appoint  me  if  the  Admiral 
would  undertake  that  I  should  accept  the  office ; 
for  it  occurred  to  Lord  Minto  that,  being  a  family 
man,  and  of  high  pretensions,  I  might  be  unwilling 
to  sacrifice  a  certainty  for  an  uncertainty.  My 
advancement  at  Prince  of  Wales's  Island  was  secure, 
but  the  Moluccas  were  only  a  war  dependency, 
and  it  was  not  known  what  measures  regarding 
them  might  be  taken  by  the  Government  at  home. 
The  Admiral  did  not  like  to  take  the  responsibility, 
and  the  arrangement  dropped  on  an  understanding 
that  my  assent  was  alone  wanting ;  but  as  the 
Governor-General  was  about  to  return  to  Bengal, 
he  would,  of  course,  feel  himself  at  perfect  liberty 
to  bestow  the  office  on  another,  should  an  im- 
mediate arrangement  or  the  claims  of  others  require 
an  early  attention.' 

As  soon  as  Raffles  received  from  the  Admiral 
news  of  the  possible  opening  which  lay  for  him 
in  the  Moluccas,  he  formed  the  determination  to 
visit  Calcutta.  '  My  attention  had  long  been  directed 
to  the  state  of  the  Dutch  possessions  to  the  eastward  ; 
and  as  rumours  were  afloat  of  a  projected  armament 
going  against  the  Isle  of  France,  it  occurred  to  me 
that  the  information  I  possessed  respecting  Java 
might   be   useful,  and   possibly  turn  the  attention  of 


36  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

our  Government  in  that  direction.  I  accordingly 
left  my  family,  and  proceeded  to  Calcutta  in  a  small 
and  frail  vessel — the  only  one  which  offered,  but  in 
which  my  future  prospects  had  well-nigh  perished. 
This  was  in  the  month  of  June  1810.''  On  my 
arrival  in  Bengal  I  met  with  the  kindest  reception 
from  Lord  Minto.  I  found  that  though  the  appoint- 
ment to  the  Moluccas  had  not  actually  taken  place, 
it  was  promised  to  another.  I,  in  consequence, 
relinquished  all  idea  of  it,  and  at  once  drew  his 
Lordship's  attention  to  Java  by  observing  that  there 
were  other  islands  worthy  of  his  Lordship's  con- 
sideration besides  the  Moluccas — ^Java,  for  instance. 
On  the  mention  of  Java  his  Lordship  cast  a  look 
of  such  scrutiny,  anticipation  and  kindness  upon  me 
that  I  shall  never  forget.  "Yes,"  said  he,  "Java  is  an 
interesting  island.  I  shall  be  happy  to  receive  any 
information  you  can  give  me  concerning  it."  This 
was  enough  to  encourage  me,  and  from  this  moment 
all  my  views,  all  my  plans  and  all  my  mind  were 
devoted  to  create  such  an  interest  regarding  Java 
as  should  lead  to  its  annexation  to  our  Eastern 
Empire ;  although  I  confess  that  I  never  had  the 
vanity  to  expect  that,  when  this  object  was  accom- 
plished, so  important  an  administration  would  have 
been  entrusted  to  my  individual  charge ;  that  I 
should  be  entrusted  with  what  Mr  Marsden  em- 
phatically observes  was  as  great  a  charge  as  a 
nation  could  entrust  to  an  individual.' 

It  must  be  frankly  admitted  that  in  thus  writing 

'  The  original  states  1811 — an  obvious  error. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  37 

Raffles  was  misled  as  to  his  own  share  in  the 
undertaking  of  the  conquest  of  Java.  The  idea  of 
such  a  conquest  was  of  course  no  new  thing.  The 
fact  that  it  had  been  previously  expressly  forbidden 
proves  that  it  was  already  the  subject  of  discussion. 
There  is  a  very  lucid  despatch  by  Lord  Minto, 
dated  October  11,  181 1,  wherein  he  shows  that 
the  military  proceedings  against  Bourbon,  the  Isle 
of  France,  and  Java  were  each  part  of  a  connected 
whole.  Among  the  India  Office  records  are 
elaborate  reports  on  the  subject  of  an  attack  upon 
Java,  drawn  up  by  the  British  Resident  at  Fort 
Marlborough  long  before  Raffles's  visit  to  Calcutta. 
But  if  Raffles  did  not  initiate  the  expedition,  at 
least  he  secured  its  prompt  and  ready  success  by 
means  of  the  zeal  and  ability  with  which  he 
obtained  the  necessary  information.  Moreover,  the 
success  of  his  administration  of  the  island  has  given 
a  tenfold  importance  to  the  story  of  its  conquest. 

Lord  Minto  was  a  good  judge  of  men,  and  he 
was  able  to  provide  Raffles  with  an  employment 
in  which  his  best  qualities  had  ample  display.  He 
was  appointed  Agent  to  the  Governor-General  with 
the  Malay  States  'as  an  avant  courier,  and  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  expedition.'  The  date  of 
his  commission  was  October  19,  18 10,  and  in  the 
following  December  he  arrived  at  Malacca,  which 
he  had  himself  selected  as  his  headquarters.  It  is 
to  this  period  that  the  description  of  him  refers 
which  was  afterwards  written  by  his  Malay 
secretary,   Abdulla. 


38  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

*  When  I  first  saw  Mr  Raffles,  he  struck  me  as 
being  of  middle  stature,  neither  too  short  nor  too  tall. 
His  brow  was  broad,  the  sign  of  large-heartedness  ; 
his  head  betokened  his  good  understanding  ;  his  hair, 
being  fair,  betokened  courage  ;  his  ears,  being  large, 
betokened  quick  hearing  ;  his  eyebrows  were  thick, 
and  his  left  eye  squinted  a  little ;  his  nose  was 
high  ;  his  cheeks  a  little  hollow  ;  his  lips  narrow,  the 
sign  of  oratory  and  persuasiveness  ;  his  mouth  was 
wide  ;  his  neck  was  long  ;  and  the  colour  of  his  body 
was  not  purely  white  ;  his  breast  was  well-formed, 
his  waist  slender,  his  legs  to  proportion,  and  he  walked 
with  a  slight  stoop.' 

More  interesting  is  the  account  of  his  mode  of  life. 
*  Now  I  observed  his  habit  was  to  be  always  in  deep 
thought.  He  was  most  courteous  in  his  intercourse 
with  all  men.  He  always  had  a  sweet  expression 
towards  European  as  well  as  native  gentlemen.  He 
was  extremely  affable  and  liberal,  always  commanding 
one's  best  attention.  He  spoke  in  smiles.  He  also 
was  an  earnest  inquirer  into  past  history,  and  he  gave 
up  nothing  till  he  had  probed  it  to  the  bottom.  He 
loved  most  to  sit  in  quietude,  when  he  did  nothing 
else  but  write  or  read  ;  and  it  was  his  usage,  when  he 
was  either  studying  or  speaking,  that  he  would  see 
no  one  till  he  had  finished.  He  had  a  time  set  apart 
for  each  duty,  nor  would  he  mingle  one  with  another. 
Further,  in  the  evenings,  after  tea,  he  would  take  ink, 
pen  and  paper,  after  the  candles  had  been  lighted, 
reclining  with  closed  eyes  in  a  manner  that  I  often 
took   to    be    sleep ;    but  in    an    instant  he    would   be 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  39 

up  and  write  for  a  while  till  he  went  to  recline  again. 
Thus  he  would  pass  the  night,  till  twelve  or  one, 
before  he  retired  to  sleep.  This  was  his  daily  prac- 
tice. On  the  next  morning  he  would  go  to  what  he 
had  written,  and  read  it  while  walking  backwards  and 
forwards,  when,  out  of  ten  sheets,  probably  he  would 
give  only  three  or  four  to  his  copying-clerk  to  enter 
into  the  books,  and  the  others  he  would  tear  up. 
Such  was  his  daily  habit.' 

Abdulla  gives  a  striking  picture  of  the  many- 
sidedness  of  our  hero's  intellectual  interests.  Men 
were  employed  in  collecting  plants,  insects,  shells, 
birds  and  nests  for  him.  '  Many  people  profited  from 
going  to  search  for  the  living  creatures  that  exist  in 
the  sky  and  the  earth,  sea  or  land.'  He  '  took  great 
interest  in  looking  into  the  origin  of  nations  and 
their  manners  and  customs  of  olden  times,  examining 
what  would  elucidate  the  same.  ...  At  that  time  the 
histories  stored  up  in  Malacca  were  nearly  exhausted, 
being  sold  by  the  people;  and  what  were  only  to  be 
borrowed,  these  he  had  copied.'  Abdulla  notes  the 
fondness  for  animals  of  which  we  hear  so  much  in 
later  years.  The  Rajah  of  Sambas  had  sent  a  present 
of  a  Mawas  or  ourang-outang,  '  so  he  put  trousers  on 
the  Mawas^  with  coat  and  hat  complete,  which  made 
it  as  like  a  little  man  as  possible,  and  he  let  it  go, 
when  it  soon  became  apparent  that  its  habits  were  those 
of  mankind,  the  only  fault  being  that  it  could  not  speak.' 

In  reading  the  account  of  the  way  in  which  Raffles 
spent  his  money  it  ceases  to  be  a  matter  for  wonder 
that  he  never  felt  well  off.     Few  have  realised  better, 


40  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

though  on  a  small  scale,  the  quality  of  jxiyaXovpiTtsia^ 
as  described  by  Aristotle,  but  the  '  magnificent '  do 
not  lay  up  stores  for  their  posterity. 

One  more  salient  feature  Abdulla  notes.  '  I  also 
perceived  that  he  hated  the  habit  of  the  Dutch  ...  of 
running  down  the  Malays,  and  they  detested  him  in 
return  ;  so  much  so  that  they  would  not  sit  down  be- 
side him.  But  Mr  Raffles  loved  always  to  be  on  good 
terms  with  the  Malays — the  poorest  could  speak  to 
him.'  What  was  the  object  of  Raffles's  visit  no  one 
exactly  knew,  but  '  it  was  plain  to  me  that  in  all  his 
sayings  and  doings  there  was  the  intelligence  of  a 
rising  man,  together  with  acuteness.  And  if  my 
experience  be  not  at  fault,  there  was  not  his  superior 
in  this  world  in  skill  or  largeness  of  heart.' 

Meanwhile  the  political  objects  of  the  mission  were 
being  well  fulfilled.  In  exhaustive  reports  to  Lord 
Minto,  Raffles  sketched  the  main  features  of  a  policy 
to  be  applied  to  the  islands.  In  ancient  times  the 
Malay  chiefs,  though  in  full  authority  within  their 
own  territories,  had  all  held  of  a  suzerain  who  was 
King  of  the  ancient  and  powerful  state  of  Majohapit 
in  Java,  and  had  the  title  of  Bitora.  Raffles  proposed 
that  the  Malay  chiefs  should  be  persuaded  to  invest 
the  Governor-General  with  the  ancient  title  of  Bitora. 
A  general  right  of  superintendence  and  interference 
would  thus  be  given,  which  might  be  limited  by  treaty, 
so  as  to  remove  any  occasion  of  suspicion  from  the 
native  powers.  In  the  districts  directly  occupied  by 
the  English  a  line  of  policy  should  be  adopted  directly 
contrary  to  the  policy  of  the   Dutch.     That  policy 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  41 

had  been  to  depress  the  native  Malay  inhabitants, 
and  to  favour  the  Chinese.  Raffles  considered  that 
the  Chinese  were  draining  and  exhausting  the  country 
for  the  benefit  of  China.  But  if  danger  arose  from 
the  industrious  Chinese,  the  lazy  Arab  traders  were 
a  yet  greater  evil.  They  were  concerned  very  fre- 
quently in  acts  of  piracy,  and  were  great  promoters 
of  the  slave  trade.  The  remedy  was  to  encourage 
the  native  Malays  and  to  regulate  on  equal  terms 
the  duties  of  the  Malay  and  other  Eastern  ports. 
The  commercial  policy  advocated  by  Raffles  was 
suggested  by  the  facts  of  the  situation.  Under  the 
Dutch  orders  all  persons  had  been  prohibited  under 
pain  of  death  from  trading  in  the  four  fine  kinds  of 
spices,  unless  such  spices  had  been  first  bought  from 
the  Company.  The  Dutch  genius  had  never  been 
able  to  discover  that  in  the  long  run  it  must  be 
more  profitable  to  make  smaller  profits  on  a  larger 
capital  than  larger  profits  on  a  smaller  capital.  Their 
policy  had  been  to  put  out  one  eye  in  order  to 
strengthen  the  sight  of  the  other.  An  artificial 
monopoly  had  been  kept  up  by  the  prohibition  of 
natural  products  and  by  the  wanton  destruction  of 
crops.  But  while  protesting  against  such  iniquities. 
Raffles  recognised  that  some  features  of  the  Dutch 
policy  should  be  retained.  One  feature  of  that  policy 
had  been  to  exclude  all  foreigners,  whether  native  or 
European,  from  all  trade,  except  at  certain  specified 
ports.  This  policy  was  as  much  connected  with  the 
political  government  of  the  country  as  with  the  com- 
mercial profits  of  the  Company.     *  Against  the  policy 


42         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

of  establishing  certain  determinate  and  regular  ports 
as  emporiums  of  trade,  it  does  not  appear  to  me  that 
there  is  any  valid  objection  to  be  stated  ;  and  I  there- 
fore submit  this  measure  to  your  Lordship's  considera- 
tion as  the  most  effectual  method  of  preventing  the 
Eastern  Islands  from  being  overrun  by  a  multitude  of 
unprincipled  adventurers — ^chiefly  Chinese,  Arabian 
and  American — whose  presence  in  these  countries  v^^ill 
neither  tend  to  strengthen  the  interest  of  the  British 
nation  nor  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  natives.' 
With  regard  to  the  natives,  the  policy  of  the  Dutch 
had  been  to  encourage  dissensions  between  the  various 
chiefs.  The  policy  of  the  English  should  be  to  sup- 
port legitimate  authority  by  their  influence,  and  gradu- 
ally to  subject  the  private  quarrels  of  headmen  to  a 
general  system  of  established  law.  The  rudiments  of 
such  a  system  were  to  be  found  in  the  Undang 
Undangy  or  the  traditional  codes  current  in  the 
various  states.  It  was  proposed  that  every  Malay 
chief  should  be  requested  to  furnish  a  copy  of  such 
Undang  Undang^  and  to  send  one  or  two  learned  men 
to  a  congress  which  might  be  appointed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  revising  the  general  system  of  Malay  law. 
No  measures  of  improvement,  however,  could  do 
much  unless  the  evils  of  piracy  and  domestic  slavery 
were  first  removed.  Piracy  had  been  the  natural 
growth  of  the  physical  circumstances  and  national 
habits  of  the  Malay  people,  and  it  could  now  only  be 
extirpated  by  an  adequate  naval  force.  Kidnapping 
by  pirates  was  a  main  source  of  slavery,  together  with 
the    penalties   enacted   in   the   Malay   law   respecting 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  43 

debts  and  sundry  misdemeanours.  Slavery,  Raffles 
asserted,  had  been  abolished  in  1805  through  British 
India  by  Lord  Wellesley,  and  Lord  Minto,  by  his 
order  of  June  4,  181 1,  emancipating  the  Government 
slaves  at  Malacca,  had  given  the  Malay  natives  an 
earnest  of  his  views  on  the  subject.  With  regard 
to  the  more  remote  political  future.  Raffles  faced 
the  possibility  that  Java  might  not  be  permanently 
retained.  In  any  case  sound  policy  dictated  the 
forming  of  the  most  intimate  connections,  by  treaty, 
w^ith  such  of  the  native  peoples  as  had  indisputable 
pretensions  to  independence.  '  By  fixing  ourselves 
in  Banca,  Bali,  Celebes  and  Jelolo,  we  shall  have  a 
chain  of  posts  which  would  prevent  the  enemy 
entirely  from  attaining  very  formidable  power,  or 
deriving  his  former  advantage  from  the  possession 
of  Java  and  the  Moluccas  ;  and  by  forming  a  settle- 
ment in  Borneo,  connected  with  the  interior  of 
that  country,  so  fertile  and  so  rich  in  the  precious 
metals,  we  shall  soon  be  in  a  position  to  compete 
with  them  on  equal  terms.'  Not  without  reason, 
in  closing  his  report,  he  congratulated  Lord  Minto 
'  on  the  most  splendid  prospect  which  any  administra- 
tion has  beheld  since  the  first  acquisition  of  India  ; 
the  pacification  of  India  completed,  the  tranquillity 
and  prosperity  of  our  Eastern  possessions  secured, 
the  total  expulsion  of  the  European  enemy  from 
the  Eastern  seas,  and  the  justice,  humanity  and 
moderation  of  the  British  Government,  as  much 
exemplified  in  fostering  and  leading  on  new  races 
of  subjects  and  allies  in  the  career  of  improvement, 


44         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

as  the  undaunted  courage  and  resolution  of  British 
soldiers  in  rescuing  them  from  oppression.'  While 
occupied,  however,  with  large  schemes  of  general 
policy.  Raffles  was  none  the  less  mindful  of  the 
immediate  business  in  hand.  Communications  were 
at  once  entered  into  with  several  of  the  principal 
chieftains  in  Java  in  the  Malay  and  Javanese  lan- 
guages. *  Further  letters  in  these  languages  were 
forwarded  to  the  eastward  by  every  opportunity 
that  offered.'  Friendlv  relations  were  established 
with  the  Rajahs  of  Bali  and  Lombolc,  whence'  ample 
provisions  could  be  obtained  for  an  army  invading 
Java.  Attempts  were  made  to  enlist  on  the  British 
side  the  Bantam  chiefs,  who  were  nominally  subject 
to  the  Dutch  ;  while  at  the  same  time  a  proclamation 
was  issued  in  the  Dutch  language  endeavouring  to 
induce  the  Dutch  colonists  to  side  with  the  English 
against  their  French  masters. 

In  one  instance,  according  to  Abdulla,  Raffles  was 
deceived  by  his  native  agents.  A  Malay  had  been 
despatched,  along  with  a  Javanese  nobleman,  with 
letters  to  the  Sultan  of  Mataram.  They  returned 
with  an  answer,  in  which  the  Sultan  agreed  to  assist 
from  the  landward  on  the  arrival  of  the  English. 
The  terms  of  the  letter  excited  Raffles's  suspicions. 
He  kept  taking  it  in  his  hands  only  to  lay  it  down 
again.  At  last  he  recognised  that  the  paper  was  of 
exactly  the  same  sample  as  that  in  his  own  press. 
He  sent  at  once  for  the  unhappy  Javanese,  and 
extorted  from  him  a  reluctant  confession.  The 
envoys    had    been    prevented    by    the    monsoon,    and 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  45 

had  never,  in  fact,  landed  in  Java.  'When  Mr 
Raffles  heard  all  this  he  scratched  his  ears  and  stamped 
his  feet  vi^ith  rage,  and  with  a  blank  face  told  him 
to  go  below  to  wait  there,  and  to  look  at  Mr  Raffles 
you  would  take  him  as  one  under  great  trouble, 
without  ceasing,  for  on  that  day  it  was  intended  to 
get  his  effects  on  board  ship,  it  being  the  day  for 
sailing.'  Raffles  had  placed  great  hopes  on  the 
results  of  this  mission,  and  to  be  thus  fooled,  in  the 
presence  of  Lord  Minto,  was  indeed  hard.  Accord- 
ing to  AbduUa,  Raffles  threatened  to  blow  the  Malay 
from  a  cannon's  mouth  at  sea.  Abdulla  shrewdly 
suspects  that  the  threat  was  made  with  the  intention 
of  the  wretched  man  making  his  escape,  as  he  did, 
by  which  means  an  unpleasant  subject  need  not  be 
recalled.  From  the  manner  in  which  the  story  is 
told  it  is  clear  that  such  a  failure  on  the  part  of 
Raffles's  diplomacy  was  altogether  exceptional.  The 
information  supplied  by  him  with  regard  to  the 
number  and  position  of  the  enemy's  forces  proved 
singularly  accurate.  He  recommended  the  stationing 
of  ships  of  war  on  the  south  coast  of  Java,  to  pre- 
vent supplies  of  either  men  or  arms  being  introduced 
by  the  French  from  that  quarter.  Raffles  also  urged 
the  importance  of  the  British  troops  being  cautioned 
as  to  their  behaviour  while  in  the  island.  '  As  the 
connection  of  the  British  with  the  Malay  States  has 
been  always  the  subject  of  the  greatest  anxiety  and 
jealousy  to  the  Dutch,  it  may  be  suspected  that  they 
have  not  given  to  the  Malays  and  Javanese  a  more 
favourable  idea  of  the  English  than  thev  have  given 


46         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

of  the  Malays.  It  must  be  admitted  that  we  are 
going  to  commence  our  operations  in  Java  with  the 
majority  of  our  troops,  whether  European  or  native, 
entertaining  the  most  unfavourable  ideas  of  the  Malay 
character.  These  sentiments  in  the  minds  of  our 
soldiers  will  not  naturally  tend  to  induce  a  line  of 
conduct,  on  their  part,  calculated  to  convey  to  the 
natives  of  Java  any  strong  impressions  either  of  our 
justice  or  humanity.'  In  a  similar  spirit  he  had 
warned  Lord  Minto  of  the  bad  impression  caused 
by  the  presence  off  Batavia  of  British  ships.  A 
universal  alarm  had  been  excited  in  the  minds  of 
the  natives.  'As  few  of  the  Eastern  nations  are  at 
all  acquainted  with  the  English  language,  and  almost 
as  few  of  the  officers  of  H.M.'s  navy  are  able  to 
communicate  directly  with  the  natives  in  the  Malay 
language,  the  danger  of  not  being  able  to  make 
themselves  understood  always  appears  very  formidable 
to  the  natives,  and  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that 
in  various  instances  it  has  led  to  consequences  of 
the  most  fatal  kind.' 

Raffles  was  one  of  the  first  Englishmen  to  form  a 
just  estimate  of  the  Japanese  character.  Although 
under  the  mismanagement  of  the  Dutch,  the  trade 
with  Japan,  of  which  they  possessed  the  monopoly, 
had  sunk  well  nigh  to  zero,  being  limited  to  ten 
ships  a  year  from  Batavia,  it  was  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  Great  Britain  should  inherit  the 
Dutch  privileges  to  serve  as  a  foundation  on  which 
to  build.  Upon  the  whole  it  may  be  safely  affirmed 
that  had  Raffles  died  at  the  age  of  thirty,  his  reports 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  47 

from  Malacca  alone  would  have  secured  him  a  place 
among  the  most  foreseeing  of  British  public  servants. 
Meanwhile  Lord  Minto  had  determined  himself  to 
accompany  the  Java  Expedition.  The  flutter  caused 
by  this  decision  in  the  official  dovecots  is  amusingly 
described  in  a  letter  of  Leyden.  '  All  are  utterly 
confounded  by  his  Lordship's  resolution,  of  which 
nobody  had  the  slightest  suspicion  ;  and  so  com- 
pletely were  they  all  taken  aback  that  nobody 
volunteered  for  service  till  the  whole  arrangements 
were  settled.  Indeed  more  than  the  half  are  as 
yet  thunderstruck,  and  are  very  far  from  believing 
that  he  has  any  real  intention  of  visiting  Java.  "  No," 
say  they,  "to  go  and  take  such  a  little  paltry  place 
would  not  be  decorous  ;  no,  no,  there  must  be  an 
insurrection  breaking  out  again  at  Madras."  The 
selection  of  your  humble  servant  is  another  very 
ominous  circumstance,  and  I  daresay  has  deterred 
a  great  many  smart  bucks  from  coming  forward. 
The  civilians  of  the  Joint  Committee  have  already 
discovered  me  to  be  a  very  devil  incarnate,  and  the 
greatest  mischief  maker  in  the  land.  They  will 
be  very  glad  to  see  the  back  seams  of  my  hose  at 
all  events.  I  volunteered,  of  course,  as  soon  as  his 
Lordship  signified  his  desire  of  having  me  with  him, 
to  come  off  directly  to  join  you  ;  but  he  told  me 
that  he  should  prefer  to  have  me  directly  at  his  elbow. 
You  may  be  sure  no  possible  delay  but  will  be  avoided 
when  I  am  of  the  party.  We  go  first  to  Madras 
to  see  the  whole  force  oflt  from  that  quarter.  The 
Bengal  force  will  be  shipped  directly.     In  the  Modeste 


48  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

go  with  his  Lordship  from  Madras  to  Malacca,  Mr 
Seton,  the  present  Resident  of  Delhi,  who  goes  to  be 
Governor  of  Penang — he  is  an  excellent  character  ; 
Mr  Elliot  ;  Captain  Taylor  ;  Mr  Gordon,  surgeon  to 
the  Body  Guard  ;  Mr  Hope,  whom  you  saw  when 
he  came  from  the  Mauritius  when  you  were  here, 
and  your  humble  servant.  Pray  be  most  particular 
in  your  military  enquiries  against  the  time  of  our 
arrival,  and  be  able  to  tell  where  the  disposable 
force  is  stationed,  for  that  will  be  of  main  utility. 
I  have  secured  Greigh  to  be  under  your  command, 
and  that  is  giving  you  a  fine  fellow  in  every  sense 
of  the  word,  active  and  alert,  and  brother-in-law  of 
Lord  Rollo  besides,  and  you  owe  not  me  but  a  good 
many  for  the  circumstance.' 

In    February    1811,    Lord    Minto    had   written   to 
Raffles  acquainting   him  with   his   intention   to   pro- 
ceed in  person  'at  least  to  Malacca,  and  eventually, 
I    may  say   probably,    to  Java.'       His   main    motive 
for  accompanying  the  expedition  was  that  he  might 
personally  confer  with  Raffles.     Lord  Minto  added  : 
'  I  must  tell  you  in  confidence  that  I  have  received 
the  sanction    of   Government   at   home   for  this   ex- 
pedition, but  that  the  views  of  the  Directors  do  not 
go  beyond  the  expulsion  or  reduction  of  the  Dutch 
power,  the  destruction  of  the  fortifications,  the  dis- 
tribution   of    their    arms    and    stores   to    the    natives, 
and  the  evacuation  of  the  island  by  our  own  troops. 
I  conclude,  however,  that  the  destructive  and  calami- 
tous   consequences    of    this    plan   to    so   ancient    and 
populous  a   European  colony,  the  property  and  lives 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  +9 

of  which  must  fall  a  sacrifice  to  the  vindictive  sway 
of  the  Malay  chiefs,  if  transferred  suddenly  and 
defenceless  to  their  dominion,  have  not  been  fully 
contemplated  ;  and  I  have  already  stated  my  reasons 
for  considering  a  modification  of  their  orders  as 
indispensable.'  Dr  Leyden  wrote  that  Lord  Minto 
was  'still  fluctuating  between  the  two  old  plans  of 
keeping  the  country  or  rendering  it  independent'; 
but  probably  Lord  Minto,  like  other  strong  men, 
did  not  always  let  others  know  what  was  passing 
within  him.  He  was  careful,  however,  to  let  Raffles 
know  the  opinion  he  held  of  him.  'It  is  proposed,' 
he  writes,  '  to  style  you  Secretary  to  the  Governor- 
General  when  we  come  together ;  for  then  your 
character  of  Agent  will  naturally  merge.  Secretary 
is  the  highest  office  below  the  Council,  and  was  lately 
held  by  Mr  Edmonstone  at  Madras.  I  hope  you 
do  not  doubt  the  prospective  interest  I  have  always 
taken,  and  do  not  cease  to  take,  in  your  personal 
views  and  welfare.  I  have  not  spoken  distinctly 
on  that  subject,  only  because  it  has  been  from 
circumstances  impossible  for  me  to  pledge  myself 
to  the  fulfilment  of  my  own  wishes,  and,  I  may 
add,  intentions,  if  practicable.  The  best  is,  in  truth, 
still  subject  to  one  contingency,  the  origin  of  which 
is  earlier  than  my  acquaintance  with  you  ;  but  I  am 
happy  to  say  that-  I  do  not  expect  an  obstacle  to 
my  very  strong  desire  upon  this  point  ;  and  if  it 
should  occur,  the  utmost  will  be  done  to  make  the 
best  attainable  situation  worthy  of  your  services  and 
of  the  high  esteem  I  profess  with  the  greatest 
sincerity  for  your  person.' 

D 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE    CONQUEST    OF    JAVA    (1811) 

The      Voyage  —  Military      Operations  —  Appointed      Lieutenant- 
Governor — -Lord  Minto's  Decision  as  to  Retention. 

Lord  Minto  arrived  at  Penang,  April  i8,  1811,  and 
at  Malacca  on  May  9,  following.  We  have  a  pleasant 
picture  of  the  good  Governor-General  burning  the 
implements  of  torture  and  causing  the  old  dungeons 
to  be  razed  to  the  ground.  The  need  for  haste  was 
pressing,  as  the  south-east  monsoon  was  every  day 
increasing  in  violence  and  rendering  the  passage  to 
Java  more  and  more  uncertain.  The  alternative 
of  two  routes  presented  itself — first,  the  direct  route 
along  the  south-west  coast  of  Borneo  ;  secondly,  the 
passage  round  the  north  and  east  coast  of  Borneo, 
through  the  Straits  of  Macassar.  By  means  of  the 
services  of  Mr  Greigh,  '  peculiarly  suited,'  in  Lord 
Minto's  words,  'as  well  as  his  ship,  to  many  useful 
purposes,'  and  by  inquiries  among  the  best-informed 
of  the  Eastern  traders,  Raffles  established  the  feasi- 
bility of  the  South-West  Passage.  He  '  did  not 
hesitate  to  stake  his  reputation  on  the  success  which 
would  attend  the  expedition  if  the  route  he  pointed 
out  should  be  followed.'  Lord  Minto  gave  practical 
5° 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  51 

proof  of  his  trust  in  Raffles,  by  choosing  the  route 
he  advised  against  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the 
naval  authorities.  He  embarked  on  H.M.S.  Modestc^ 
commanded  by  his  son,  Captain  George  Elliot, 
on  June  18,  181 1,  and  in  less  than  six  weeks 
after  leaving  Malacca  the  fleet,  consisting  of  up- 
wards of  ninety  sail,  was  in  sight  of  Batavia  without 
accident  to  a  single  vessel.  Lord  Minto  humorously 
describes  the  way  in  which  the  cautious  Commodore 
Broughton  took  care  that  the  Modate  should  lead 
the  way,  and  have  the  post  of  danger.  In  Lord 
Minto's  words,  '  The  expectations  which  had  been 
formed  were  verified  in  every  part  of  the  passage, 
and  everything  turned  out  precisely  as  had  been  fore- 
told and  proposed  with  the  exception  of  finding 
less  difficulty  than  had  been  looked  for,  and  the 
voyage  proving  shorter  than  could  have  been  hoped. 
...  I  have  been  the  more  particular  in  detailing 
these  circumstances,  because  this  expedition  must 
have  been  abandoned  for  the  present  year  (an  earlier 
departure  than  actually  took  place  from  India  having 
been  totally  impracticable)  if  I  had  yielded  to  the 
predicted  difficulties  of  the  passage.'  It  was  at 
the  moment  of  the  first  landing  upon  Java,  when 
the  weight  of  anxiety  which  had  for  weeks  oppressed 
him  was  removed,  and  his  star  seemed  clearly  in  the 
ascendant,  that  Raffles  wrote  the  letter  to  Mr  Ramsay 
already  quoted,  in  which  he  described  himself  as 
sometimes  'as  happy  as  I  think  it  possible  for  man 
to  be.'  '  It  is  one  of  these  life-inspiring  moments,' 
he  continues, 'that  I  now  purpose  passing  with  you 


52  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

a  la  distance  ...  of  the  importance  of  this  conquest, 
the  views  that  naturally  present  themselves  on  such 
an  occasion,  and  the  share  I  have  had  in  bringing 
the  important  point  so  near  a  conclusion,  I  need 
not  speak.  You  have  the  opportunity  of  seeing 
the  government  proceedings  which  will  be  sufficiently 
satisfactory.  ...  I  wish  very  much  to  hear  what  is 
said  of  my  political  ideas  respecting  the  government 
of  the  Eastward.  ...  I  will  write  you  more  fully 
after  we  are  settled.     Conquer  we  must.' 

The  troops,  consisting  of  about  9000  men,  landed 
on  August  4  at  Chillinching,  in  Batavia  Bay.  The 
General  in  command  was  Sir  Samuel  Auchmuty,  of 
whose  '  talents,  judgment,  and,  above  all,  character,' 
Lord  Minto  had  formed  the  highest  opinion  when 
known  to  him  only  through  his  correspondence. 
Happily  the  prediction  was  in  every  way  fulfilled, 
that  '  it  is  impossible  that  anything  can  disturb  the 
harmony  of  this  important  service  so  far  as  he  and  I 
are  concerned.'  Proclamations  were  at  once  issued 
addressed  to  the  Dutch  and  native  inhabitants.  The 
Dutch  were  reminded  that  '  the  extinction  of  their 
metropolis  has  left  the  colonies  of  Holland  to  their 
own  free  judgment.'  They  were  therefore  urged  to 
side  with  '  the  champion  and  defender  of  Europe  ' 
against  '  the  common  enemy  of  all  nations.'  The 
natives  were  informed  that  the  English  came  as 
friends,  but  '  as  they  have  not  entered  the  Eastern 
seas  for  purposes  of  ruin  and  destruction,  but  solely 
with  the  desire  of  securing  to  the  Eastern  nations  the 
enjoyment  of  their  ancient  laws  and  institutions,  and 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  53 

of  protecting  everyone  from  violence,  oppression  and 
injustice,  the  inhabitants  themselves  must  be  aw^are 
that  they  cannot  recommend  themselves  to  such  a 
government  by  means  of  massacres  and  commotions. 
The  English  Government  accordingly  require  that 
the  native  inhabitants  remain  for  the  present  the 
peaceable  spectators  of  what  is  about  to  take  place, 
and  that  they  on  no  account  act  oppressively,  or  take 
up  arms  against  the  French  or  Dutch,  except  when 
expressly  called  upon  to  do  so  by  an  English  officer. 
All  supplies  will  be  paid  for  at  full  value,  but  you  are 
not  to  supply  the  enemy,  and  you  are  also  to  impede 
the  progress  of  the  enemy's  army  from  one  part  of  the 
country  to  the  other.  The  port  of  Batavia  is  open  to 
all  native  traders.  All  prows  and  vessels  bringing 
provisions  and  merchandise  will  be  kindly  received 
and  protected  by  the  English  ships  of  war.' 

Advancing  with  part  of  his  army,  General 
Auchmuty  found  that  the  road  to  Batavia  was  not 
disputed  by  the  enemy,  and  that  the  only  obstacle 
to  his  progress  was  the  destruction  of  the  bridge  over 
the  River  Aujal.  On  the  8th  the  troops  occupied 
the  suburbs  of  the  city,  and  a  temporary  bridge  was 
constructed  capable  of  supporting  light  artillery.  On 
the  same  day  '  the  burghers  of  Batavia  applied  for 
protection,  and  surrendered  the  city  without  opposi- 
tion, the  garrison  having  retreated  to  Weltevreeden.' 
The  General's  report  continues  :  '  The  possession  of 
Batavia  was  of  the  utmost  importance.  Though 
large  storehouses  of  public  property  were  burnt  by 
the  enemy  previous  to  their  retreat,  and  every  effort 


54         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

made  to  destroy  the  remainder,  we  were  fortunate 
in  preserving  some  valuable  granaries  and  other  stores. 
The  city,  although  abandoned  by  the  principal 
inhabitants,  was  filled  with  an  industrious  race  of 
people,  who  will  be  particularly  useful  to  the  army. 
Provisions  were  in  abundance,  and  an  easy  com- 
munication preserved  with  the  fleet.'  The  leading 
inhabitants  had  been  compelled  to  accompany  the 
French  General,  and  the  Dutch  left  in  the  town 
were  glad  of  protection  against  expected  riots  on 
the  part  of  the  Malays.  Very  early  on  the  loth 
Colonel  Gillespie  advanced  towards  the  enemy's 
cantonment  at  Weltevreeden.  '  The  cantonment 
was  abandoned,  but  the  enemy  were  in  force  a  little 
beyond  it,  and  about  two  miles  in  advance  of  their 
works  at  Cornelis.  Their  position  was  strong,  and 
defended  by  an  abbatis,  occupied  by  3000  of  their 
best  troops  and  four  guns  of  horse  artillery.  Colonel 
Gillespie  attacked  it  with  spirit  and  judgment,  and, 
after  an  obstinate  resistance,  carried  it  at  the  point 
of  the  bayonet,  completely  routed  their  force,  and 
took  their  guns.  A  strong  column  from  these  troops 
advanced  to  their  support,  but  our  line  being  arrived 
they  were  instantly  pursued,  and  driven  under  shelter 
of  their  batteries.  In  this  affair,  so  creditable  to 
Colonel  Gillespie  .  .  .  our  loss  was  trifling  compared 
with  the  enemy's,  which  may  be  estimated  at  about 
500  men.  .  .  .  Though  we  had  hitherto  been  suc- 
cessful beyond  my  most  sanguine  expectations,  our 
further  progress  became  extremely  difficult  and  some- 
what   doubtful.       The    enemy,    greatly    superior    in 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  55 

numbers,    was   strongly    entrenched    .    .   .    seven    re- 
doubts   and    many    batteries,    mounted    with    heavy 
cannon,    occupied    the    most    commanding    grounds 
within   the  lines.     The   fort   of  Cornelis  was  in  the 
centre,  and   the  whole  of  the  works  were  defended 
by    a    numerous    and    well-organised   artillery.      The 
season   was  too  far  advanced,    the    heat    too    violent, 
and    our    numbers    insufficient    to    admit    of    regular 
approaches.     To  carry  the  works  by  assault  was  the 
alternative,   and   on   that   I   decided.      In   aid   of  this 
measure    I    directed    some    batteries    to    disable    the 
principal     redoubts,     and     for     two     days     kept     up 
a    heavy     fire     from     twenty    eighteens,    and     eight 
mortars  and  howitzers.     Their  execution   was  great, 
and  I  had  the  pleasure  to  find  that  though  answered 
at   the   commencement   of  each   day   by    a    far   more 
numerous    artillery,    we    daily    silenced    their    nearest 
batteries,    considerably   disturbed   every   part  of  their 
position,  and  were  evidently  superior  in  our  fire. 

'  At  dawn  of  day  on  the  26th  the  assault  was 
made.  The  principal  attack  was  entrusted  to  that 
gallant  and  experienced  officer  Colonel  Gillespie.  .  .  . 
The  enemy  was  under  arms  and  prepared  for  the 
combat,  and  General  Janssens,  the  Commander-in- 
Chief,  was  in  the  redoubt  when  it  commenced. 
Colonel  Gillespie,  after  a  long  action  through  a 
close  and  intricate  country,  came  on  their  advance, 
routed  it  in  an  instant,  and,  with  a  rapidity  never 
surpassed,  and  under  a  heavy  fire  of  grape  and 
musketry,  possessed  himself  of  the  advanced  redoubt. 
He    passed    the    bridge    with    the    fugitives    under   a 


56         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

tremendous  fire,  and  assaulted  and  carried  with  the 
bayonet  the  redoubt,  after  a  most  obstinate  resist- 
ance. Here  the  two  divisions  of  this  column 
separated.  Colonel  Gibbs  turned  to  the  right,  and 
with  the  59th  and  part  of  the  78th,  who  had  now 
forced  their  way  in  front,  carried  the  redoubt.  A 
tremendous  explosion  of  the  magazine  of  this  work 
took  place  at  the  instant  of  its  capture,  and  destroyed 
a  number  of  gallant  officers  and  men,  who  at  the 
moment  were  crowded  on  its  ramparts,  which  the 
enemy  had  abandoned.  The  redoubt,  against  which 
Lieutenant-Colonel  M'Cleod's  attack  was  directed, 
was  carried  in  as  gallant  a  style  ;  and  I  lament  to 
state  that  most  valiant  and  experienced  officer  fell 
at  the  moment  of  victory.  The  front  of  the  position 
was  now  open,  and  the  troops  rushed  in  from  every 
quarter. 

*  During  the  operations  of  the  night.  Colonel 
Gillespie  pursued  his  advantage  to  the  left,  carrying 
the  enemy's  redoubts  towards  the  rear.  ...  A 
sharp  fire  of  musketry  was  now  kept  up  by  a  strong 
body  of  the  enemy,  who  had  taken  post  in  the  lines 
in  front  of  Fort  Cornelis,  but  were  soon  driven  from 
thence,  the  fort  taken,  and  the  enemy  completely 
dispersed.  They  were  pursued  by  Colonel  Gillespie 
with  the  14th  Regiment,  a  party  of  sepoys,  and  the 
seamen  from  the  batteries  under  Captain  Sayer  of 
the  Royal  Navy  ;  by  this  time  the  cavalry  and  horse 
artillery  had  effected  a  passage  through  the  lines, 
the  former  commanded  by  Major  Travers,  and  the 
latter    by    Captain    Noble  ;    and,    with    the    gallant 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  57 

Colonel  at  their  head,  the  pursuit  was  continued  till 
the  whole  of  the  enemy's  army  was  killed,  taken 
or  dispersed.  ...  I  have  the  honour  to  enclose  a 
return  of  the  loss  sustained  .  .  .  sincerely  I  lament 
its  extent  ;  and  the  many  valuable  and  able  officers 
that  have  unfortunately  fallen  ;  but  when  the  pre- 
pared state  of  the  enemy,  their  numbers,  and  the 
strength  of  their  positions  are  considered,  I  trust  it 
will  not  be  deemed  heavier  than  might  be  expected. 
Theirs  has  greatly  exceeded  it  ;  in  the  action  of 
the  26th  the  numbers  killed  were  immense,  but  it 
has  been  impossible  to  form  any  accurate  statements 
of  the  amount.  About  lOOO  have  been  buried  in 
the  works,  multitudes  were  cut  down  in  the  retreat, 
the  rivers  are  choked  up  with  the  dead,  and  the  huts 
and  woods  were  filled  with  wounded,  who  have  since 
expired.  We  have  taken  nearly  5000  prisoners, 
among  whom  are  3  general  officers,  34  field  officers, 
90  captains,  and  150  subaltern  officers.  General 
Janssens  made  his  escape  with  difficulty  during  the 
action,  and  reached  Buitenzorg  with  a  few  cavalry, 
the  sole  remains  of  an  army  of  10,000  men.  This 
place  he  has  since  evacuated,  and  fled  to  the  eastward. 
A  detachment  of  our  troops  is  in  possession  of  it. 
The  superior  discipline  and  invincible  courage  which 
has  so  highly  distinguished  the  British  army  was 
never  more  fully  displayed  ;  and  I  have  the  heartfelt 
pleasure  to  add  that  they  have  not  been  clouded  by 
any  acts  of  insubordination.' 

Not  daring   to   remain   at   Buitenzorg,  the  Dutch 
Governor  had  fled  with  a  fragment  of  his  forces  to 


58         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Samarang.  Although  Janssens  had  been  present  at 
the  battle  of  Cornelis,  the  command  of  the  troops 
had  been  held  by  the  French  General  Jumelle. 
Janssens,  at  most,  could  only  postpone  the  evil  day, 
and,  Samarang  being  captured  by  the  English,  he 
signed  on  September  i8  the  formal  capitulation. 
The  general  rejoicing  was  damped  by  the  death  of 
Leyden.  The  tradition  goes  that  he  had  been  the  first 
to  leap  upon  the  shore  of  Java.  '  He  pushed  his 
exertions  of  every  kind  far  beyond  his  strength,  and 
was  totally  regardless  of  the  precautions  against  the 
sun.'  He  went  heated  from  a  public  library  into  a 
room  which  had  not  been  opened  for  a  long  time,  and 
was  struck  by  a  mortal  chill.  He  had  been  ailing  for 
some  time,  and  fell  an  easy  victim  to  the  first  attack. 
In  him  Raffles  lost  a  most  loyal  friend  and  fellow- 
worker,  whose  place  was  very  partially  filled  by  the 
somewhat  pompous  and  self-centred  Mr  Marsden. 

At  the  date  of  the  capitulation  Raffles  had  already 
been  for  one  week  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Java. 
His  commission  was  issued  on  September  ii,  the 
same  day  on  which  was  published  the  Proclamation 
which  was  to  direct  the  course  of  the  new  govern- 
ment. It  has  been  already  seen  that  Lord  Minto 
hinted  of  prior  claims  which  might  stand  in  the  way 
of  our  hero's  appointment.  Happily,  the  obstacle, 
whatever  it  was,  was  removed,  and  Lord  Minto  was 
able  to  appoint  Raffles  '  as  an  acknowledgment  of 
the  services  he  had  rendered,  and  in  consideration  of 
his  peculiar  fitness  for  the  office.' 

Lord    Minto   justified    himself    against    a    possible 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  59 

charge  of  disobedience  to  the  orders  of  the  Com- 
pany by  emphasising  the  consequences  which  blind 
obedience  would  have  entailed.  '  It  would  have  been 
an  abuse  of  the  word  obedience,  and  offensive,  above 
all,  to  the  authority  from  which  the  order  had  been 
issued  under  a  defect  of  local  information  to  have 
carried  into  effect  a  command,  of  which  the  conse- 
quences described  were  manifest  on  the  spot  to  those 
who  were  charged  with  the  execution.'  To  with- 
draw the  whole  European  population,  and  to  make 
a  provision  for  their  support,  'would  have  required 
pecuniary  sacrifices  and  arrangements  which  could 
have  been  hazarded  by  no  subordinate  authority 
abroad.'  For  the  time  Lord  Minto's  arguments 
convinced.  Nevertheless,  he  would  seem  to  have 
gauged  better  than  did  the  sanguine  Raffles  the 
real  temper  of  their  London  masters.  There  is  a 
note  of  disquiet  in  the  words  which  Lord  Minto 
used  on  the  eve  of  his  departure  from  Java — words 
which  Raffles  liked  to  recall,  and  which  bore  good 
fruit  in  his  measures — '  While  we  are  here,  let  us 
do  as  much  good  as  we  can.' 


CHAPTER    V 

THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    JAVA    (181I-16) 

The  Dutch  Regime^Dif(icu\t\ts  of  Situation — Lord  Minto's  Pro- 
clamation— Visits  Courts  of  Souracarta  and  Djocjocarta — - 
Fiscal  Regulations — Amended  System  in  the  Administration 
of  Justice — Palembang  Expedition — Visits  Samarang — Settle- 
ment with  Native  Princes — Lord  Minto's  Approval. 

Thus,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty,  Raffles  found 
himself  the  ruler  of  the  'other  India.'  Of  the 
great  beauty  and  of  the  great  potential  wealth  of 
the  country  there  could  be  no  question.  But 
there  were  considerations  which  might  have  given 
a  less  sanguine  man  food  for  thought.  Whatever 
were  its  real  resources,  the  financial  position  of 
Java  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  was  bad  in  the 
extreme.  Perhaps  as  a  nation  we  are  somewhat 
inclined  to  pharisaical  thanksgivings  on  our  superi- 
ority to  our  neighbours.  But  from  any  point  of 
view,  the  contrast  between  the  histories  of  the 
English  and  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Companies 
is  striking.  Both  were  trading  companies  com- 
pelled by  the  irresistible  trend  of  events  to  assume 
territorial  sovereignty.  But  while  the  English 
Company,  in  spite  of  mistakes  and  failures,  must 
60 


CORNCUS 
T         A        V 


u 


c 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  6i 

upon  the  whole  be  said  to  have  risen  to  the 
height  of  the  occasion,  and  in  its  last  days  obtained 
the  regrets  of  a  man  so  enlightened  as  J.  Stuart 
Mill,  the  Dutch  Company  on  the  other  hand 
continued  consistently  to  evade  responsibility,  and 
to  regard  all  its  territorial  rights  as  subservient  to 
its  mercantile  system.  Thus  the  cession,  in  1749, 
of  the  whole  of  the  northern  and  eastern  coasts 
to  the  Company  did  not  lead  to  any  attempt  to 
improve  the  condition  of  the  country  or  its  in- 
habitants. The  final  judgment  upon  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company  must  be  pronounced  from 
Dutch  mouths.  The  Commission,  appointed  in 
1790,  reported  upon  the  management  of  affairs 
that  '  they  could  not  conceal  the  deep  impression 
which  the  same  had  made  upon  their  minds,  and 
that  they  could  not  fix  their  thoughts  upon  it 
without  being  affected  by  sentiments  of  horror  and 
detestation.'  'When,'  said  thev,  'we  take  a  view 
of  our  chief  possessions  and  establishments,  and 
when  we  attend  to  the  real  situation  of  the  internal 
trade  of  India,  the  still  increasing  and  exorbitant 
rate  of  the  expenses,  the  incessant  want  of  cash, 
the  mass  of  paper  money  in  circulation,  the  un- 
restrained peculations  and  faithlessness  of  many  of 
the  Company's  servants,  the  consequent  clandestine 
trade  of  foreign  nations,  the  perfidy  of  the  native 
princes,  the  weakness  and  connivance  of  the  Indian 
Government,  the  excessive  expenses  in  the  military 
department  and  for  public  defence  :  in  a  word, 
when   we    take   a   view   of  all    this   collectively,  we 


62  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

should  almost  despair  of  being  able  to  fulfil  our 
task,  if  some  persons  of  great  talent  and  ability 
among  the  Directors  had  not  stepped  forward  to 
devise  means,  if  not  to  eradicate,  at  least  to  stop 
the  further  progress  of  corruption  and  to  prevent 
the  total  ruin  of  our  Company.' 

Whatever  chances  there  may  have  been  of  im- 
provement, they  w^ere  lost  by  the  breaking  out  of 
war,  and  in  the  general  conflagration  caused  by 
the  French  Revolution,  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company  came  to  its  inglorious  end.  The  revenue 
of  the  Company  had  mainly  depended  upon  the 
monopoly  of  the  Eastern  trade,  and,  with  the 
breaking  up  of  that  monopoly  by  the  superior 
power  of  the  British  fleet,  the  deficit  in  the  Java 
accounts  grew  by  leaps  and  bounds.  Daendels, 
who  arrived  in  Java  in  January  1808  to  restore  the 
situation,  was  an  able  man,  but  he  was  above  all  a 
Jacobin,  a  disciple  of  that  terrible  school  to  whom 
facts  were  as  nothing  in  the  iron  grasp  of  pre- 
conceived theory.  His  claims  to  have  initiated 
reforms  in  the  lot  of  the  Javanese  will  be  dealt 
with  below  ;  the  financial  legacy  which  he  left  his 
successor  is  best  told  from  that  successor's  own 
mouth.  '  Le  ci-devant  Gouverneur-General,'  wrote 
Janssens,  'a  epuise  toutes  ressources  ;  je  ne  saurais 
repondre  des  evenements.'  Again,  writing  after 
the  final  disaster,  he  said,  '  Sauver  la  colonic,  je  le 
declare  devant  le  Dieu  tout  puissant,  cela  etait 
impossible  pour  qui  ce  fut.  Telle  etait  meme 
I'horreur    de    la   situation,    que    s'il    eut    ete    possible 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  63 

de  vaincre  une  armee  reguliere  comme  celle  de 
rennemi,  je  n'avais  pas  des  moyens  pour  continuer 
radministration  de  la  colonic.  Toutes  ces  ressourccs 
etaient  epuisees  ou  aneanties  ! ' 

Considering  the  experiences  of  the  past,  and 
how  seldom  it  is  that  a  vicious  circle  of  deficits 
can  be  at  once  escaped,  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
was  too  great  an  element  of  hopefulness  in  the 
estimate  formed  by  Raffles  and  endorsed  by  Lord 
Minto  of  a  surplus  of  700,000  Spanish  dollars  for 
the  year  1812-13.  On  the  other  hand,  the  estimate 
was  founded  on  elaborate  figures,  and  was  sub- 
stantially approved  by  the  Bengal  Accountant- 
General.  Be  this  as  it  may,  undoubtedly  the 
disappointment  caused  by  the  failure  of  these 
expectations,  guiltless  as  Raffles  was  of  the  cause 
of  this  failure,  strengthened  the  hands  of  the  party 
opposed  to  him  in  the  councils  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  led  to  the  contemptuous  view  of 
his  financial  measures  which  for  years  prevailed. 
Moreover,  this  financial  disappointment  gave  tenfold 
force  to  the  arguments  of  those  who  had  always 
regarded  the  Java  Expedition  as  a  hazardous  adven- 
ture, outside  the  proper  business  of  the  East  India 
Company.  It  has  been  seen  how  reluctantly,  and 
only  under  the  pressure  of  Lord  Minto's  influence 
and  logic,  the  Company  had  agreed  to  do  more 
than  break  the  enemy's  power,  and  then  leave  the 
Dutch  colonists  at  the  mercy  of  the  natives.  It 
was  obvious  what  an  argument  a  succession  of 
deficits   would    put    into    the    hands    of    the    more 


64         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

timid  party.  The  ship  might  be  slowly  righting 
itself,  so  that  by  the  time  the  colony  was  restored 
to  the  Dutch,  it  was  recognised  that  the  financial 
equilibrium  had  been  restored,  and  Raifles's  policy, 
on  mere  financial  grounds,  abundantly  justified. 
What  the  wiseacres  of  Leadenhall  Street  demanded 
was  immediate  gains,  and  when  these  immediate 
gains  were  not  forthcoming,  it  is  doubtful  which 
was  more  unpopular,  Java  or  its  sanguine  Governor. 
Meanwhile  the  strain  of  the  work  in  hand  forbade 
vague  anticipations  as  to  the  future.  It  was  a 
matter  of  comment  both  by  friends  and  critics 
how  completely,  from  the  necessity  of  the  case, 
all  the  threads  of  government  had  to  pass  through 
the  hands  of  Raffles.  The  absence  of  an  experi- 
enced and  trained  civil  service  rendered  his  position 
unique.  One  great  mainstay  he  did  possess.  The 
lines  of  the  policy  to  be  worked  out  in  detail  had 
been  once  and  for  all  sketched  by  Lord  Minto  in 
the  memorable  Proclamation  of  September  ii, 
1811.  Under  this  His  Majesty's  subjects  in  Java 
were  declared  to  be  entitled  generally  to  the  same 
privileges  as  were  enjoyed  by  the  natural  -  born 
subjects  of  Great  Britain  in  India.  They  will  also 
have  the  same  privilege  and  freedom  of  trade  to, 
and  with,  all  countries  to  the  east  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  also  with  His  Majesty's  European 
dominions,  as  are  possessed  by  natural-born  subjects 
of  Great  Britain.'  '  Dutch  gentlemen  will  be 
eligible  to  all  offices  of  trust.'  '  The  vexatious 
system    of  monopoly   .   .   .  will    be    revised.'      'The 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  65 

Dutch  laws  will  remain  provisionally  in  force.' 
The  following  modifications  among  others  were 
however  made.  Torture  and  mutilation  were 
abolished.  British-born  subjects  were  to  be  amen- 
able to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Dutch  tribunals, 
and  to  the  Dutch  laws  in  all  cases  of  civil  complaint 
or  demands.  All  British-born  subjects  were  to  be 
subject  to  the  regulations  of  police,  and  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  magistrates  charged  with  the 
execution  thereof  Power  was  given  to  the 
Lieutenant-Governor  to  enact  legislative  regulations 
which  should  have  the  full  force  of  law.  Such 
regulations  were  to  be  immediately  reported  to  the 
Governor-General  in  Council  in  Bengal,  together 
with  the  Lieutenant-Governor's  reasons  for  passing 
them  and  any  representations  that  might  have 
been  submitted  to  him  against  the  same ;  and  the 
regulations  so  passed  were  to  be  confirmed  or 
disallowed  by  the  Governor-General  in  Council 
with  the  shortest  possible  delay. 

RafHes  at  once  set  himself  to  conciliate  the  Dutch 
inhabitants.  'They,'  he  writes  confidentially  to  Lord 
Minto  in  January  1812,  'are  perfectly  content  and 
happy.  .  .  .  There  is  not  among  the  Dutch  the 
least  symptom  of  dissension,  and  all  classes  of  people 
have  come  most  quietly  under  the  British  rule.  The 
Colonel  (Gillespie)  is  occasionally  full  of  suspicions 
with  regard  to  conspiracies  and  plots,  and,  I  believe, 
if  he  had  his  own  way,  would  send  every  Dutchman 
off  the  island.  He  really  has  no  consideration  what- 
ever   for    them,   but    it    is   all   without   reason.     We 

E 


66         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

have  not  had  any  unpleasant  occurrence.  As  soon 
as  it  was  known  that  the  oaths  might  be  taken, 
the  public  offices  were  crowded  from  morning  till 
night  with  the  inhabitants.  No  order  had  been  ever 
issued  respecting  the  oaths,  and  yet  every  man  on 
the  island  has  taken  them ;  they  may  really  be 
termed  voluntary  oaths.  The  late  members  of 
Council  came  forward  in  a  body,  and,  after  taking 
the  oaths  before  me,  I  am  sorry  to  add,  got  most 
jovially  tipsy  at  my  house  in  company  with  the 
new  Councillors.'  From  another  letter  we  learn 
that  Raffles  found  the  policy  of  promoting  British 
interests  by  keeping  open  house  very  expensive  to 
his  own  private  pocket. 

Although  the  whole  island  had  been  nominally  a 
Dutch  possession,  they  had,  in  fact,  shirked,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  responsibilities  of  sovereignty,  and 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  island  the  native  princes 
wielded  effective  authority.  The  two  most  important 
native  princes  were  the  Sosohunan  or  Emperor,  who 
represented  the  ancient  Javanese  monarchy,  and  re- 
sided at  Solo,  and  the  Sultan  of  Mataram,  whose 
capital  was  Djocjocarta.  As  the  Dutch  power  was 
seen  to  wane,  vague  aspirations  after  independence 
began  to  penetrate  the  minds  of  the  native  rulers. 
The  swiftness,  however,  and  the  completeness  of 
the  British  success  prevented  any  show  of  overt 
resistance,  and  the  first  months  of  Raffles's  govern- 
ment were  spent  in  peacefully  introducing  the  new 
system.  From  the  first,  in  Muntinghe's  words, 
*■  his  actions   aimed    at   strengthening    the    European 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  67 

rule  and  extending  it,  setting  aside  all  dangerous 
influences  of  the  Mahomedan  governors.'  The 
power  of  the  European  residents  was  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  bringing  into  operation  of  a  new 
system  of  taxation  and  by  the  change  in  the 
administration  of  the  law.  Mr  Hope  was  appointed 
Civil  Commissioner  for  the  eastern  districts,  an 
office  which  Deventer  calls  *  materially  a  continua- 
tion of  former  governors  of  Java.'  It  is  note- 
worthy that  the  Netherlands  Commissioners-General 
in  1816  considered  Raffles's  Instructions  to  Resi- 
dents so  complete  and  accurate  that  they  continued 
them  almost  entirely  without  alterations. 

The  power  and  authority  of  the  Sultan  was  of 
modern  date,  arising  out  of  the  settlement  made 
at  the  general  peace  of  1755.  The  conquests  of 
the  Sultan's  father  had  been  confirmed  by  the  Dutch, 
according  to  Raffles,  '  more  as  a  matter  of  necessity 
than  inclination.'  The  Sultan  had  been,  on  paper, 
deposed  by  Marshal  Daendels,  but  had  taken  advan- 
tage of  the  troubled  times  to  assume  the  sovereignty, 
and  to  remove,  try  and  execute  the  Prime  Minister. 
The  English  resident,  Mr  Crawfurd,  took  a  strong 
line  against  the  Sultan,  but  Raffles  was  very  doubtful 
both  of  the  justice  and  of  the  policy  of  such  a  line  of 
action.  In  this  state  of  things  he  determined  to 
visit  in  person  the  Courts  of  the  Emperor  and 
Sultan.  Raffles  embarked  on  November  28,  and 
landed  at  Samarang  on  December  4,  making  a  public 
entry  into  Souracarta  on  the  21st.  The  task  of 
coming  to  terms  with  the  Sosohunan  presented  little 


68  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

difficulty.  A  treaty  was  signed,  under  which,  in 
return  for  a  fixed  money  payment,  the  Emperor 
gave  up  the  proceeds  of  the  birds'  nests  and  the 
teak  forests.  An  important  provision,  guaranteeing 
to  the  Emperor  protection,  was  intended  to  pave  the 
way  for  the  disbandment  of  the  numerous  armed 
bodies  retained  in  his  service.  The  Emperor  pro- 
fessed great  satisfaction  at  the  treaty.  Producing 
a  letter  which  Raffles  had  written  from  Malacca, 
he  remarked  that  he  was  now  satisfied  that  the 
English  promised  nothing  which  they  did  not  per- 
form. At  the  same  time  he  presented  Raffles  with 
a  krlss,  '  invaluable  on  account  of  its  having  descended 
from  his  ancestors.' 

Very  different  was  the  task  to  be  performed  at 
Djocjocarta.  Raffles  was  still  hampered  by  the 
strong  views  of  the  British  Agent,  Mr  Crawfurd. 
Influential  natives  banished  by  Daendels  had  been 
sent  home  by  Raffles  to  report  confidentially. 
Crawfurd,  however,  by  setting  them  up  as  rivals 
to  the  Sultan,  rendered  the  mission  useless.  Mean- 
while Raffles  was  still  determined  to  acknowledge 
the  Sultan's  authority.  He  started  from  Souracarta 
on  December  26,  and  on  the  next  day  proceeded 
direct  to  Djocjocarta.  '  On  my  arrival,'  Raffles 
writes  to  Lord  Minto,  '  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Djocjocarta,  every  arrangement  was  made  for  my 
reception  with  the  honours  shown  to  Marshal 
Daendels.  ...  I  was  first  met  by  the  Regent, 
and  then  by  the  Sultan,  with  whom  I  proceeded  in 
the  same  carriage  to  the  Residency  House,  the  roads 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  69 

and  streets  being  lined  and  crowded  by  about  10,000 
armed  men  of  various  descriptions,  mostly  cavalry. 
.  .  .  Everything,  however,  was  perfectly  peaceable 
on  my  approach,  and  by  a  quick  movement  of  the 
troops  from  Klatten  in  one  morning,  and  before 
the  Sultan  was  aware  of  their  number,  I  found 
myself  in  Djocjocarta  with  nearly  the  whole  dis- 
posable force  that  could  have  been  brought  against 
the  place.'  Raffles  recognised  that  '  the  proceedings 
with  the  Sultan  and  Regent  could  not  be  considered 
otherwise  than  in  the  light  of  an  armed  negotiation.' 
In  this  state  of  things  he  deemed  it  sufficient  to 
bind  the  Sultan  to  all  his  engagements  with  the 
former  Government,  and  to  reinstate  him  on  the 
throne  during  the  time  he  might  'conduct  himself 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  British  Government.'  A 
deed  to  this  effect  was  thereupon  signed,  upon 
which,  '  instead  of  the  appearance  of  caution  and 
fear,'  the  Sultan  '  evinced  a  perfect  confidence  in 
the  sincerity  and  intentions  of  the  English.  There 
were  no  troops  whatever  in  the  palace,  and  it  seemed 
to  be  his  desire  in  every  measure  to  show  his  grati- 
tude and  attachment  to  me.'  The  question  of  a 
treaty  upon  the  lines  of  the  treaty  with  the  Emperor 
was  postponed  to  a  later  date. 

The  mode  of  collecting  the  revenue  was  altered. 
As  early  as  March  18 12,  Raffles  was  able  to  write 
that  '  in  the  collection  of  the  revenue  the  obnoxious 
system  of  farming  has  been  abandoned  as  much  as 
possible,  and  regular  custom-houses  have  been  estab- 
lished   at    Batavia,    Samarang    and    Sourabaya.       A 


70  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

system  of  duties  has  been  established,  founded  in 
some  measure  on  the  extent  of  the  duties  hitherto 
collected,  and  with  reference  to  the  support  of  the 
dependent  situations  of  Penang,  Malacca,  Bencoolen 
and  the  Moluccas,  which  sooner  or  later  must  fall 
upon  the  immediate  Government  of  this  place  if 
Java  continues  a  British  settlement.'  These  duties 
were  fixed  at  the  rate  of  lo  per  cent.  The  com- 
mercial policy  of  Raffles  has  been  severely  criticised 
by  Deventer,  who  quotes  the  Napoleonic  description 
of  his  rule  given  by  Crawfurd — that  of  '  a  warehouse 
keeper.'  Upon  the  other  hand,  Raffles  strenuously 
maintained  that,  in  the  economic  and  moral  con- 
ditions of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  Free  Trade  would 
have  led  to  untold  evils,  and  that  his  measures  were 
the  best  attainable  in  the  peculiar  circumstances  of 
the  case. 

A  yet  more  important  business  than  commercial 
policy  at  once  occupied  Raffles's  attention.  In  the 
administration  of  justice,  '  the  system  found  existing 
.  .  .  was  at  once  complicated  and  confused.  In  the 
principal  towns  there  were  established  courts,  but 
these  were  constituted  in  all  the  troublesome  for- 
malities of  the  Roman  law  ;  and  in  the  different  Pre- 
sidencies were  Provincial  Courts,  styled  Landraads^ 
where  the  native  form  and  law  was  left  to  take 
its  course,  with  all  its  barbarities  and  atrocities ' 
(Minute  of  February  ii,  1814).  Torture  and  mutila- 
tion had  been  abolished  by  Lord  Minto's  proclamation, 
and  an  attempt  was  at  once  made  to  simplify  the 
clumsy  and   unwieldy  structure  of  the  former  courts. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  71 

The  separate  courts  for  the  trial  of  cases  affecting 
European  Government  employes  were  abolished,  and 
three  separate  courts  established  at  Batavia,  Samarang 
and  Sourabaya,  dealing  with  all  cases  between  Euro- 
peans, the  facts  being  in  every  case  decided  upon  by 
a  jury.  In  civil  cases  the  Dutch  law  prevailed,  but 
in  criminal  the  English,  as  far  as  possible,  was 
followed.  Minor  courts  were  set  on  foot  for  the 
recovery  of  small  debts,  and  police  magistrates  ap- 
pointed in  the  towns.  At  the  same  time  courts 
were  established  in  the  different  districts,  in  which 
the  chief  civil  authorities  presided,  aided  by  the 
Regents  and  other  native  officers,  for  the  trial  of 
cases  in  which  natives  only  were  concerned  — 
criminal  cases  of  a  capital  nature  being  reserved  for 
judges  of  circuit,  who  were  to  attend  twice  a 
year. 

At  a  later  date  (18 14),  after  a  careful  inquiry 
into  the  native  customs,  a  system  was  established 
under  which  the  original  constitution  of  the  villages 
was  utilised,  and  the  superintendence  and  responsi- 
bility continued  in  the  hands  of  the  village  chiefs. 
The  duties  of  the  Resident  as  judge  and  magistrate 
were  considerably  extended.  The  Residencies  were 
divided  into  districts,  and  chiefs  of  districts  {Bopatls) 
appointed.  The  districts  were  again  sub-divided  into 
divisions,  to  be  generally  not  less  than  ten  nor  more 
than  twenty  miles  in  extent,  and  each  of  these 
divisions  contained  a  police  station.  Within  the 
divisions  were  the  villages,  each  with  its  headman, 
to  be  elected  by  the  villagers  themselves  from  among 


72  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

the  resident  landholders.  These  headmen  were  held 
responsible  for  the  good  behaviour  of  their  villages, 
and  directed  to  keep  the  necessary  registries,  '  Their 
reward  will  be  a  certain  portion  of  land  in  each 
village,  and  the  favouring  eye  and  protection  of 
Government.'  Small  civil  cases  might  be  tried  in 
native  divisional  and  district  courts,  but,  with  certain 
trilling  exceptions,  all  cognisance  of  criminal  cases 
was  vested  solely  in  the  Resident's  Courts.  The  chief 
priests  and  native  fiscals  attended  these  to  expound 
the  law.  If  the  opinions  of  these  officers  appeared 
to  the  Resident  to  be  consonant  with  substantial 
justice,  the  sentence  was  immediately  carried  into 
effect.  In  case  of  a  difference  of  opinion,  the  de- 
cision was  referred  to  the  Lieutenant  -  Governor. 
The  circuit  judges  were  in  future  to  attend  quarterly, 
and  a  native  jury,  consisting  of  five  members,  was 
constituted  for  the  trial  of  the  facts.  Following  the 
spirit  of  Locke's  Constitution,  Raffles  forbade  the 
employment  of  native  lawyers.  '  It  is  trusted  that 
litigation  will  be  considerably  reduced  and  discouraged 
by  this  measure.' 

Raffles  strongly  deprecated  the  introduction  of  '  a 
judicial  establishment  from  England,  of  all  things 
the  most  to  be  dreaded  for  the  general  prosperity 
and  happiness  of  the  population.  The  British  Courts 
of  Justice  fit  with  difficulty  our  permanent  English 
establishments  in  India  ;  but  here  their  introduction 
would  only  lead  to  anarchy,  vexation  and  trouble 
without  end.'  The  Dutch  colonial  law,  when 
modified.   Raffles   believed    to    be  '  peculiarly  adapted 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  73 

to   the   place,  .  .  .  and    perhaps  the   best   that   could 
he  devised.' 

We  learn  from  Captain  Travers  that,  '  soon  after 
the  capture  of  the  island,  Mr  Raffles  removed  from 
Batavia  to  Buitenzorg,  the  country  residence  of  the 
former  Governor,  distant  forty  miles  from  Batavia, 
and  here  he  kept  a  most  hospitable  table.  He  v^^ent 
to  Ryswick  every  week  to  attend  the  Council, 
consisting  of  Major-General,  then  Colonel,  Gillespie, 
.  .  .  with  Mr  Muntinghe  and  Mr  Cransen,  Dutch 
gentlemen,  who  had  held  high  situations  under  the 
former  government.  At  Ryswick  he  remained  a 
day  or  two,  according  to  circumstances,  and  occa- 
sionally saw  company  there ;  but  the  climate  at 
Buitenzorg  being  so  far  superior,  he  was  always 
anxious  to  return,  and  seldom  lost  much  time  on 
the  road,  performing  the  journey  in  four  hours. 
He  was  most  attentive  to  the  members  of  the  former 
government,  who  were  constant  guests  at  his  table.' 
(Captain  Travers's  Journal.) 

It  was  not,  however,  allowed  to  Raffles  to  work 
out  in  peace  the  salvation  of  the  island.  Java  itself, 
for  the  time,  remained  tranquil,  but  the  behaviour  of 
the  Sultan  of  Palembang,  which,  though  situated  in 
Sumatra,  had  been  a  tributary  of  the  Dutch  Batavian 
Government,  necessitated  military  measures.  He  had 
been  invited  to  acknowledge  the  British  suzerainty 
in  the  stead  of  the  Dutch.  At  first,  however,  he 
adopted  a  haughty  tone,  and  seemed  inclined  to  resist. 
At  last,  impressed  by  the  British  power,  he  altered  his 


74  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

tactics  and  professed  to  have  been  from  the  first  a 
cordial  ally,  so  as  to  have  become  entitled  to  generous 
treatment.  In  fact,  he  had  caused  the  Dutch  in- 
habitants to  be  foully  murdered,  so  that  they  might 
not  be  witnesses  to  his  false  statements,  and  had  done 
this  after  the  news  had  reached  him  of  the  conquest  of 
Java.  In  these  circumstances  it  became  necessary  to 
depose  the  Sultan,  and  an  expedition  for  this  purpose 
was  at  once  set  on  foot.  The  story  of  this  expedition, 
which  started  in  March  and  had  achieved  complete 
success  by  May,  hardly  belongs  to  the  life  of  Raffles. 
It  reflected  great  credit  on  all  concerned,  especially  on 
Colonel  Gillespie  who  was  in  command.  To  Raffles 
the  importance  of  the  business  lay  in  the  fact  that 
under  the  treaty  by  which  the  Sultan  was  deposed  and 
his  brother  raised  to  the  throne  in  his  stead,  Banca 
and  Billiton  became  British  possessions.  The  value 
of  Banca,  because  of  its  productive  tin  mines,  had 
been  long  recognised  by  Raffles,  and  for  the  present 
it  certainly  seemed  that  fortune  was  favouring  his 
policy.  '  I  am  aware,'  he  wrote  to  Lord  Minto,  '  that 
I  have  taken  much  responsibility  upon  myself  in 
the  adoption  of  hostile  measures  against  Palembang 
without  previous  reference  to  Bengal ;  but  so  many 
favourable  circumstances  concurred  to  induce  the 
measure,  and  so  many  obstacles  in  the  way  of  its 
final  success  appeared  to  present  themselves  in  the 
event  of  delay,  that  I  should  not  have  felt  myself 
justified  to  have  lost  the  opportunity  of  so  much  larger 
a  force  than  could  ever  have  been  subsequently  left 
at  our  command.     In  fact,  the  expedition  must  either 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  75 

have  taken  place  now  or  been  delayed  for  another 
year  ;  and  this  consideration  of  itself  was  enough  to 
outweigh  every  objection.  ...  I  have  provisionally 
appointed  a  Resident  for  Banca,  and  I  trust  my  next 
letter  will  communicate  favourable  intelligence  on 
this  point.  There  is  one  thing  I  have  never  noticed 
regarding  Banca,  and  that  is  the  harbour  of  Klabbat, 
stated  to  be  the  most  secure  in  India,  and  capable  of 
every  defence.  ...  It  is  directly  in  the  route  for  our 
trade  through  the  China  seas,  and  the  situation  of 
Minta,  on  which  it  is  projected  to  form  the  first 
settlement  in  Banca,  is  perhaps  the  most  commanding 
that  could  be  chosen  for  the  Eastern  seas.* 

Palembang  was  not  the  only  point  from  which 
danger  threatened.  We  have  already  described  the 
visit  of  the  Governor  to  the  Courts  of  Souracarta  and 
Djocjocarta  and  the  measures  then  taken.  Although 
Raffles  considered  that  the  interests  of  the  Emperor 
bound  him  to  the  British  connection,  he,  at  the  same 
time,  recognised  the  danger  that  a  weak  and  irresolute 
character  might  fall  a  victim  to  the  intrigues  of 
stronger  men.  With  regard  to  Djocjocarta,  Raffles 
had  at  the  time  recognised  the  Sultan  as  the  less  of 
two  evils,  but  he  never  pretended  that  the  arrange- 
ment, to  which  he  had  come,  had  in  it  even  the 
promise  of  finality.  After  the  expedition  to  Palem- 
bang had  started,  Raffles  took  up  his  headquarters  at 
Samarang  with  his  family,  so  as  to  be  on  the  spot 
in  case  of  need.  Demands  had  been  made  by  the 
native  princes  with  which  it  was  impossible  to 
comply.      They  claimed    to    receive,    as    in    the    old 


76  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

times,  the  coast  duties.  Raffles  'immediately  saw 
with  his  quick  and  unerring  glance  that  the  pay- 
ment of  the  coast  dues  could  not  be  allowed.  They 
were  a  last  memento  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
old  Company  had  put  themselves  in  possession  of  the 
countries  on  the  coast,  which  had  been  erased  by 
Daendels,  at  least  on  paper'  (Deventer). 

Another  demand  of  the  native  rulers  occasioned 
less  difficulty.  The  princes  deposed  during  the 
former  regime  were  sent » home,  and  a  British  party 
thus  established  at  the  native  courts.  '  The  British 
Lieutenant-Governor,'  writes  Deventer,  '  availed  him- 
self in  a  masterly  way  of  the  errors  committed  by 
Daendels  to  attach  the  native  nobles  to  himself.'  In 
a  short  sketch  it  is  impossible  to  explain  the  subtle 
machinations  of  Raffles's  diplomacy,  which  have  won 
the  emphatic  approval  of  the  Dutch  historian.  The 
long  and  short  of  it  was  that  the  Courts  of  the 
Sosahunan  and  the  Sultan  never  really  came  to  terms, 
and  that  when  things  were  ripe  for  action  at 
Djocjocarta  the  native  authorities  were  by  no  means 
at  one  in  their  opposition,  and  the  work  of  re- 
pression thereby  greatly  facilitated. 

During  his  stay  at  Samarang,  Captain  Travers 
writes  : — '  Mr  Raffles  was  availing  himself  of  every 
opportunity  of  gaining  local  knowledge.  The  native 
chiefs  were  constant  guests  at  his  table,  and  there 
was  not  a  moment  of  his  time  which  he  did  not 
contrive  to  devote  to  some  useful  purpose.  The 
only  recreation  he  ever  indulged  in,  and  that  was 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  his  health. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  77 

was  an  evening  drive  and  occasionally  a  ride  in  the 
morning.  He  was  not,  however,  at  this  time  an 
early  riser,  owing  to  his  often  writing  till  a  very  late 
hour  at  night.  He  was  moderate  at  table,  but  so 
full  of  life  and  spirits  that  on  public  occasions  he 
would  often  sit  much  longer  than  agreed  with  him. 
In  general  the  hour  for  dinner  was  four  o'clock, 
which  enabled  the  party  to  take  a  drive  in  the  evening  ; 
but  on  all  public  drys,  and  when  the  party  was  large, 
dinner  was  at  seven  o'clock.  At  Samarang  the 
society,  of  course,  was  small  compared  with  Batavia, 
but  on  public  occasions  sixty  and  eighty  were  often 
assembled  at  the  Government  House,  and  at  balls  from 
a  hundred  and  fifty  to  a  hundred  and  eighty.  Mr 
Raffles  never  retired  early,  always  remaining  till  after 
supper,  was  affable,  animated,  agreeable  and  attentive 
to  all,  and  never  seemed  fatigued,  although  perhaps 
at  his  desk  all  the  morning,  and  on  the  following  day 
would  be  at  business  at  ten  o'clock.  In  conducting 
the  details  of  government  and  giving  his  orders  to  those 
immediately  connected  with  his  own  office,  his 
manner  was  most  pleasing,  mild  yet  firm  ;  he  quickly 
formed  his  decision,  and  gave  his  orders  with  a  clear- 
ness and  perspicuity  which  was  most  satisfactory  to 
everyone  connected  with  him  ;  he  was  ever  courteous 
and  kind,  easy  of  access  at  all  times,  exacting  but 
little  from  his  staff,  who  were  most  devotedly  attached 
to  him.  The  generosity  of  his  disposition  and  the 
liberality  of  his  sentiments  were  most  conspicuous 
and  universally  acknowledged.  As  a  public  servant 
no    man    could    apply    himself  with    more    zeal    and 


78         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

attention  to  the  arduous  duties  of  his  office.  He 
never  allowed  himself  the  least  relaxation,  and  was 
ever  alert  in  the  discharge  of  the  important  trust 
committed  to  him  ;  and  it  is  astonishing  how  long 
his  health  continued  good  under  such  great  exertions 
both  of  mind  and  body.' 

In  October  1812  Raffles  wrote  to  his  friend 
Ramsay  : — '  I  can  hardly  say  what  change  has  taken 
place  in  me  since  we  parted.  I  feel  that  I  am  some- 
what older,  and,  in  many  points  of  a  worldly  nature, 
I  am  apt  to  view  men  and  things  in  a  somewhat 
different  light,  but  I  may  fairly  say  that  it  is  my 
belief  that  I  am  intrinsically  the  same.  How  far 
good,  how  far  bad,  those  who  know  me  must  decide. 
...  I  am  here  alone,  without  any  advice,  in  a  new 
country,  with  a  large  native  population  of  not  less 
than  six  or  seven  millions  of  people,  a  great  propor- 
tion of  foreign  Europeans,  and  a  standing  army  of 
not  less  than  seven  thousand  men.'  It  is  pleasant 
to  hear  from  the  same  letter  that  he  was  '  now  able 
to  clear  off  all  pecuniary  incumbrances.' 

The  result  of  the  Governor's  diplomacy  was  seen 
in  the  fact  that  in  spite  of  the  absence  of  the  greater 
portion  of  the  British  troops  on  the  expedition  to 
Palembang  overt  acts  of  hostility  were  still  delayed. 
Raffles  recognised,  however,  that  it  would  be  danger- 
ous to  delay  longer,  and  on  the  return  of  Colonel 
Gillespie  (June  i,  18 12),  it  was  decided  not  to  wait 
for  the  main  body  of  the  troops,  but  to  act  with  the 
force  which  had  been  previously  concentrated  at 
Samarang.       The  Sultan   having    refused    to   comply 


SIR   STAMFORD  RAFFLES  79 

with  the  Governor's  summons,  a  heavy  cannonade 
was  begun  against  the  royal  palace.  The  invading 
force  consisted  of  about  1200  men.  The  palace  was 
a  regular  fortified  position  about  three  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, surrounded  by  a  wide  and  deep  ditch, 
with  a  wall  forty-five  feet  high,  well  defended.  The 
garrison  consisted  of  11,000  men,  but,  nevertheless, 
the  position  was  taken  by  assault.  The  person  of 
the  Sultan  and  that  of  the  hereditary  Prince  were 
secured,  and  the  country  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
British.  The  importance  of  this  action  could  hardly 
be  overrated.  The  European  power  was  now  for  the 
first  time  paramount  in  Java.  Hitherto  their  posses- 
sions on  the  sea  coast  had  remained  precarious,  and 
there  would  have  been  grave  risk  of  disasters  if  any 
attempt  had  been  made  to  reduce  the  military  force. 
It  had  not  been  possible  till  now  for  the  British 
Government  to  dictate  to  the  native  princes  the 
terms  of  the  future  connection.  Now  for  the  first 
time  the  taxes  imposed  on  the  population  were 
brought  under  European  control.  '  It  was  not  the 
amount  of  the  duties  which  rendered  them  an  object 
of  importance,  but  it  was  of  great  weight  in  the 
political  scale  that  these  collections  should  be  kept  in  the 
hands  of  the  Government.  Starting  on  that  principle, 
the  exclusive  management  of  all  commercial  duties 
in  both  kingdoms  was  required  by  Raffles  for  the 
European  power,  and  he  immediately  put  an  end  to 
the  old  land  system  by  abolishing  the  forced  deliveries 
of  produce.  The  Princes  had  to  bind  themselves  to 
maintain  an  able  police  force,  and  the  Sultan  especially 


8o  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

was  compelled  to  disband  his  bodyguard,  and  to 
accept  the  replacement  of  it  by  British  troops.' 
(Deventer).  The  native  rulers  all  through  acted  in 
precisely  the  manner  which  suited  Raffles's  policy. 
But  for  their  treachery,  or — in  the  case  of  the 
Emperor — contemplated  treachery,  it  would  have 
been  practically  impossible  for  a  long  time  to  introduce 
European  rule  and  the  blessings  of  the  new  system 
into  the  Eastern  districts.  Our  hero's  principle  was 
in  no  case  to  demand  more  than  he  could  enforce  in 
case  of  refusal,  and  this  combination  of  moderation 
and  strength  was  the  secret  of  the  remarkable  success 
which  attended  his  proceedings.  '  A  population,'  he 
wrote,  'of  not  less  than  a  million  has  been  wrested 
from  the  tyranny  and  oppression  of  an  independent, 
ignorant  and  cruel  Prince,  and  a  country  yielding  to 
none  on  earth  in  fertility  and  cultivation,  affording 
a  revenue  of  not  less  than  a  million  of  Spanish  dollars 
in  the  year,  placed  at  our  disposal.  The  result 
at  Djocjocarta  is  decisive  at  Souracarta,  and  that 
court  must  necessarily  fall  under  the  same  arrange- 
ment.' The  proceedings  of  Raffles  met  with  the 
cordial  approval  of  Lord  Minto.  On  December  15, 
1 8 12,  he  wrote: — 'I  shall  be  impatient  for  the 
materials  which  are  called  for,  because  I  am  anxious 
to  deliver,  without  reserve  or  qualification,  the  very 
high  and  favourable  view  I  now  have  of  that  whole 
series  of  measures,  beginning  with  the  expedition  to 
Palembang,  and  ending  with  the  arrangement  of  the 
two  courts  of  Solo  and  Djocjocarta,  connected  and 
combined  with   each   other    as    these  measures  were. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  8i 

I  consider  the  result  of  the  latter  proceeding  as  very 
glorious  to  your  administration,  during  the  short 
period  of  which  more  will  have  been  accomplished 
for  the  security  of  the  European  power,  the  tranquillity 
of  the  island,  and  the  solid  improvement  of  general 
prosperity  and  happiness,  than  several  centuries  have 
been  able  to  perform,  when  the  superiority  of  European 
power  was  exerted,  unencumbered  by  the  scruples  of 
justice  and  good  faith.  Nothing  can  be  more  ex- 
cellent than  all  your  arrangements  in  the  eastern 
districts  of  Java.  With  regard  to  Palembang  and 
Banca,  your  latest  reports  have  enabled  us  to  approve, 
without  reservation,  the  arrangement  formed  at 
Palembano-,  and  the  annexation  of  Banca  to  the  terri- 
tories  of  the  East  India  Company,  our  minds  being 
satisfied  upon  the  two  points  of  justice  and  expediency. 
The  sovereignty  of  the  Sultan  of  Palembang  in  Banca 
is  placed  beyond  question,  and  leaves  that  dependence 
of  Palembang  indisputably  subject  both  to  the  laws 
of  conquest  in  so  just  a  war  and  to  the  effect  of 
cession  from  the  authority  under  which  it  is  now  held.' 
It  is  probable  that  the  first  years  of  his  government 
of  Java  were  the  happiest  of  Rafiles's  public  life.  He 
delighted  to  put  himself  and  the  Government  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  natives,  and  maintained 
an  active  correspondence  on  scientific  matters  with 
the  Emperor,  the  Regent  of  Madura  and  other  natives, 
to  the  astonishment  of  the  Dutch  ex-officials.  The 
Batavian  Society  of  Arts  and  Sciences  was  revived  and 
placed  on  a  new  footing  ;  Raffles  himself  becoming 
its  active  President.     In  every  direction  the  powers  of 

F 


82          BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

which  our  hero  had  been  conscious  had  now  a  fair 
field  for  their  display,  and  he  was  able  at  once  to 
uphold  the  interests  of  Great  Britain  and  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  native  population,  in  whose 
welfare  he  took  so  lively  an  interest.  Meanwhile,  he 
was  adding  to  the  stores  of  his  knowledge,  so  that  as 
statesman,  philanthropist  and  savant,  he  found  himself 
fully  employed.  True  it  was  that  he  was  working  at 
high  pressure,  but  for  the  time  his  health  seems  to 
have  stood  the  strain  well.  It  was  when  worry  was 
added  to  work  that  the  mischief  was  revealed. 


CHAPTER    VI 

THE    GOVERIs'MENT    OF    JAVA    (181I-16) continued 

System  of  Land  Tenure — Tentative  Experiments — Settlement  of 
181 3 — Final  Settlement  of  18 14 — Position  of  ,  Regents — 
Difficulties  of  Governor's  Position — Success  of  Measures — 
Financial  Situation — Lord  Minto's  Advice — General  Gillespie 
— Relations  with  Governor — Sale  of  Public  Land — Gillespie's 
Charges — Final  Acquittal. 

Among  the  measures  adopted  by  Raffles  the  one 
which  he  had  most  at  heart,  and  the  one  which 
most  affected  the  lives  of  the  people,  was  his  reform 
of  the  system  of  land  tenure.  Lord  Minto's  instruc- 
tions had  called  attention  to  the  system  of  contingents 
or  forced  payments  in  kind,  under  which  the  Govern- 
ment derived  a  revenue  from  forced  deliveries  of  crops, 
and  kept  the  whole  body  of  the  people  dependent  on 
its  pleasure  for  subsistence.  The  wretched  cultivator 
was  obliged  to  buy  back,  at  an  enhanced  price,  the 
produce  of  which  he  had  already  been  mulcted.  The 
Dutch  expected  a  certain  contribution  from  each 
Regent,  but  did  not  care  to  inquire  by  what  means 
the  contribution  was  obtained.  'The  Residents  living 
at  the  principal  towns  of  the  district,'  Raffles  wrote, 
'conveyed  the  orders  of  the  Government  to  the 
Regents,  to  whom  the  execution  of  them  was  en- 
trusted.   The  revenue  being  received  from  the  Regent 

83 


84         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

only,  the  mode  of  collection  remained  in  his  hands, 
leaving  the  cultivators  no  security  beyond  the  claims 
of  established  visage  and  custom.'  There  w^as  good 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  vt^hole  system  was  com- 
paratively modern,  and  due  to  the  pressure  of  the 
Dutch  in  extorting;  a  revenue.  Daendels  had  altered 
the  form  of  the  abuses,  but  left  most  of  them  in 
existence.  'I  have  thought  it  meet,'  he  writes, 
*  to  secure  for  the  State  the  advantages  that  were 
formerly  enjoyed  by  the  Residents  and  other  officials,' 
and  that  *  idea,'  says  Deventer,  '  indicated  the  scale 
of  the  imperfections  of  his  policy.  The  officials  were 
now  salaried  instead  of  any  longer  being  allowed  the 
public  or  the  secret  profits,  on  which  they  had 
existed  before ;  but  the  sources  from  which  these 
salaries  emanated  remained  the  same  impure  one  as 
before.  .  .  .  The  abuses  that  included  an  actual  ex- 
tortion from  the  "poor  Javanese,"  not  only  by  the 
forced  deliveries,  but  also  by  the  contingents  even 
of  rice,  thus  obtained  open  sanction.  Daendels  him- 
self set  the  example  of  obliging  the  natives  to  deliver 
their  rice  to  Government  at  17  rix-dollars  the  coyan, 
after  which  they  were  allowed  to  buy  it  back  at 
30  rix-dollars.'  It  thus  appears  that  the  whole  busi- 
ness of  Daendels  had  been  to  substitute  the  foreign 
government  for  the  foreign  officials  as  the  general 
taskmaster.  In  these  circumstances  Lord  Minto  re- 
commended 'a  radical  reform  in  this  branch  to  the 
serious  and  early  attention  of  Government.  The 
principle  of  encouraging  industry  in  the  cultivation 
and  improvement  of  land,  by  creating  an  interest  in 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  85 

the  effort  and  fruits  of  that  industry,  can  be  expected 
in  Java  only  by  a  fundamental  cl^ange  of  the  whole 
system  of  landed  property  and  tenure.  A  wider  field, 
but  a  somewhat  distant  one,  is  open  to  this  great  and 
interesting  improvement.  .  .  .  On  this  branch  noth- 
ing must  be  done  that  is  not  mature,  because  the 
exchange  is  too  extensive  to  be  suddenly  or  ignorantly 
attempted.  But  fixed  and  immutable  principles  of 
the  human  character  and  of  human  association  assures 
me  of  ultimate,  and,  I  hope,  not  remote  success,  in 
views  that  are  consonant  with  every  motive  of  action 
that  operates  on  man,  and  are  justified  by  the  practice 
and  experience  of  every  flourishing  country  of  the 
world.'  '  In  obtaining  the  necessary  information  to 
enable  him  to  frame  such  a  system  as,  whilst  it 
abolished  the  vicious  practice  hitherto  pursued  in  the 
island,  would  strengthen  the  resources  of  the  island 
.  .  .  the  greatest  exertion  was  required  on  Mr  Raffles's 
part,  and  he  devoted  himself  with  his  accustomed 
enthusiasm  to  the  task  ;  night  and  day  he  worked 
at  it.  To  satisfy  himself  upon  all  local  points,  to 
obtain  personal  intercourse  and  become  acquainted 
with  the  character  of  the  native  chiefs  connected 
with,  or  in  any  way  affected  by,  the  new  system, 
Mr  Raffles  deemed  it  advisable  to  proceed  to  the 
eastern  parts  of  the  island,  where  he  remained  a  con- 
siderable time,  and  visited  every  place,  often  under- 
going the  greatest  personal  exertions  and  fatigue, 
which  few  accompanying  him  were  able  to  encounter  j 
indeed,  several  were  sufferers  from  the  very  long 
journeys  he  made,  riding  sometimes  sixty  and  seventy 


86         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

miles  in  one  day,  a  fatigue  which  few  constitutions 
are  equal  to  in  an  Eastern  climate'  (Travers). 
A  Commission  had  been  appointed,  consisting  of 
Dutch  members,  presided  over  by  Colonel  Mackenzie. 
This  elaborate  and  exhaustive  inquiry  sufficiently 
established  certain  conclusions.  Although  the  state 
of  things  prevailing  was  not  the  same  in  all  the 
different  districts,  still  it  was,  on  the  whole,  clear 
that  there  was  no  proprietary  right  in  the  soil  vested 
in  any  of  the  intermediaries  between  the  actual  culti- 
vator and  the  sovereign.  Such  intermediate  officers — 
it  is  unnecessary  to  trouble  the  reader  with  their 
names  and  degrees- — though  enjoying  the  revenues  of 
districts  or  villages,  had  never  been  considered  other 
than  the  executive  officers  of  Government.  They 
had  received  those  revenues  only  from  the  gift  of 
the  overlord,  and  had  depended  upon  his  will  alone 
for  their  tenure.  It  was  possible,  and  the  analogy 
of  Bali,  where  Hindu  customs  continued  unalloyed, 
suggested  that,  in  a  remote  past,  before  the 
Mahometan  invasion,  there  had  been  some  property 
in  the  soil  residing  in  the  cultivator.  Raffles  was 
fond  of  recalling  that,  according  to  the  institutions 
of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Majopahit,  it  was  ordained 
that  *  next  to  the  sovereign  shall  be  considered  and 
respected  the  cultivator  of  the  soil ;  they  shall  be 
the  first  class  in  the  State  below  the  sovereign.' 
For  practical  purposes,  however,  the  actual  proprietary 
rights  in  the  soil  lay  wholly  with  the  sovereign, 
although  it  was  also  found  that  the  first  clearers  of  the 
land  were  considered  to  be,  in  a  measure,  its  creators. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  87 

so  as  to  become  entitled  to  undisturbed  possession  for 
themselves  and  their  heirs,  provided  that  a  due  tribute 
in  kind  was  paid  in  return  for  protection. 

The  aims  of  the  new  policy  were  best  stated  in 
Raffles's  History  of  Java.  '  The  peasant  was  subject 
to  gross  oppression  and  undefined  exaction  ;  our  object 
was  to  remove  his  oppressor,  and  to  limit  demand  to 
a  fixed  and  reasonable  rate  of  contribution.  He  was 
liable  to  restraint  on  the  freedom  of  inland  trade,  to 
personal  services  and  forced  contingents  :  our  object 
was  to  commute  them  all  for  a  fixed  and  well-known 
contribution.  The  exertions  of  his  industry  were  re- 
luctant and  languid,  because  he  had  little  or  no  interest 
in  its  fruits:  our  object  was  to  encourage  that  industry 
by  connecting  his  exertions  with  the  promotion  of 
his  own  individual  welfare  and  prosperity.  Capital 
could  not  be  immediately  created,  nor  agricultural 
skill  acquired  ;  but  by  giving  the  cultivator  a  security 
that  whatever  he  accumulated  would  be  for  his  own 
benefit,  and  whatever  improvements  he  made,  he  or 
his  own  family  might  enjoy  it,  a  motive  was  held  out 
to  him  to  exert  himself  on  the  road  to  attain  both. 
Leases  or  contracts  for  fixed  rents  for  terms  of  years, 
in  the  commencement,  and  eventually  in  perpetuity, 
seemed  to  be  the  only  mode  of  satisfying  the  cultivator 
that  he  would  not  be  liable  as  formerly  to  yearly  un- 
defined demands ;  while  freedom  from  all  taxes  but  an 
assessment  on  his  crop,  or  rather  a  fixed  sum  in  com- 
mutation thereof,  would  leave  him  at  full  liberty  to 
devote  the  whole  of  his  attention  and  labour  to  render 
his  land  as  productive  as  possible.' 


88  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

The  foundations  of  the  amended  system  were, 
according  to  Raffles  : — '  ist.  The  entire  abolition  of 
forced  deliveries  at  inadequate  rates  and  of  all  feudal 
services,  with  the  establishment  of  a  perfect  freedom 
in  cultivation  and  trade  :  2nd.  The  assumption  on 
the  part  of  Government  of  the  immediate  super- 
intendence of  the  lands,  with  the  collection  of  the 
rents  and  resources  thereof :  3rd.  The  renting  out 
of  the  lands  so  assessed  to  the  actual  occupants  in 
large  or  small  estates,  according  to  local  circumstances, 
on  leases  for  a  moderate  term.' 

Although  the  final  conclusion  reached  was  that  it 
was  unnecessary  to  preserve  any  intermediate  agency 
between  the  actual  cultivator  and  the  supreme  sove- 
reign, it  was  not  till  18 14  that  it  was  finally  laid  down 
that  '  the  Tiang  palit  or  ryotwar  settlement  is  con- 
sidered as  that  which  will  prove  most  satisfactory  to 
the  people  and  most  beneficial  to  government.'  In 
the  settlement  of  the  preceding  year  the  land  had  been 
let  out  to  the  heads  of  villages,  who  were  held  respon- 
sible for  the  proper  management  of  the  country  placed 
under  their  superintendence  and  authority.  They 
were  to  relet  to  the  cultivators  at  'such  a  rate  as  shall 
not  be  found  oppressive.' 

With  regard  to  the  amount  of  rent  to  be  paid. 
Raffles,  '  on  mature  consideration,'  conceived  that  a 
fair  equivalent  for  the  burdens  from  which  the  people 
were  released  '  might  be  found,  one  district  with 
another,  in  establishing  the  Government  share  at 
about  two-fifths  of  the  rice  crop,  leaving  the  second 
crop,  and  the  fruit  trees  and  gardens  attached  to  the 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  89 

villages,  free  from  assessment,  the  cultivators  free  from 
personal  taxes,  and  the  inland  trade  unrestricted  and 
untaxed.' 

It  may  well  be  that  Raffles  remained  for  some  time 
in  uncertainty  with  regard  to  the  best  method  of  land 
leases.     He  availed  himself  of  the  acquisition  of  new 
districts    to    undertake    experiments    on    the    subject. 
The  '  resumption  '  by  purchase  of  districts  which  had 
been    alienated     to     Chinamen    afforded    convenient 
ground   for  such  experiments.     Ulujami,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Pakalongan,  was  the  first  district  in  which  the 
new  revenue  system   was  introduced.     Here,  and    in 
parts  of  Cadoe,  the  land  was  let  to  the  lower  classes 
individually.     In    Batang,  which  was  also  in    Paka- 
longan, the  land  was  let  to  the  village  chiefs.     At  the 
time  of  the  conquest,  the  greater  portion  of  the  fertile 
province  of  Bantam  was  in  the  hands  of  a  rebel,  and 
insurrection    and    anarchy    had    prevailed    for    years. 
All  idea  of  raising  a  revenue  had  been  abandoned  by 
the    Dutch.     Raffles    came    to  an   arrangement  with 
the   Sultan  under  which  the  immediate  management 
of  the  country  was  undertaken  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment ;  by  which  means  a  land  rental  was  introduced 
and  a  revenue  settlement  effected.     In  Bantam,  the 
land  appears  to  have  been,  for  the  most  part,  leased  to 
the    Sultan's    relatives   and    to    the    principal    nobles. 
The   country   of  Cheribon  was  also  found   in  a  state 
of  tumult  and  confusion.     The  rebellion  was  stamped 
out,  and  the  Sultans  'were  relieved  from  future  con- 
tingents and   forced  services,  and    consented  that  the 
internal  administration  of  the  country  should  be  exer- 


90         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

cised  by  the  Government,  in  consideration  of  their 
being  secured  in  the  possession  of  certain  tracts  of 
land,  with  a  continuation  of  the  annual  pension  in 
money  which  they  had  previously  enjoyed.'  Each 
individual  was  secured  in  the  possession  of  the  lands 
which  had  descended  from  his  ancestors,  provided  that 
he  was  willing  to  pay  a  moderate  and  fair  rent,  equi- 
valent to  what  was  before  paid  in  produce  or  services. 
The  way  being  thus  prepared,  a  new  system,  under 
which  the  land  was  let  to  the  village  headmen,  was 
made  general  in  June  1813.  Considering  that  this 
half-way  settlement  only  lasted  a  year,  Deventer  is 
unnecessarily  severe  in  his  judgment  on  Raffles. 
The  Dutch  historian  finds  'a  lack  of  sincerity.' 
'  Nowhere^'  he  asserts,  *  did  the  natural  efforts  of 
the  first  lessee  (who  had  bound  himself  for  a  fixed 
sum  to  the  Government)  to  exact  a  higher  rent 
from  his  tenants  experience  any  restriction.'  Under 
the  revenue  instructions,  however,  of  February  18 14, 
European  collectors  were  appointed  to  the  various 
districts,  whose  office  consisted  '  in  the  sole  and  entire 
superintendence  of  the  land  revenue.'  By  this  means 
the  revenue  and  the  judicial  branches  of  the  ad- 
ministration were,  so  far  as  possible,  completely 
separated.  It  is  true  that  the  village  headmen  and 
officers  of  divisions  were  immediately  responsible  for 
the  collection  of  the  land  rent,  but  they  acted  under 
the  eye  and  control  of  British  supervision.  '  It  is 
not  enough,'  wrote  Raffles,  'that  the  Government 
lay  down  the  principles  of  a  benevolent  system  .  .  . 
it  is  with  the  collectors  that  the  application  of  these 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  91 

principles  is  entrusted,  and  to  their  temper,  assiduity, 
judgment  and  integrity  that  the  people  have  to  look 
for  the  enjoyment  of  the  blessings  which  it  is  in- 
tended to  bestow  on  them.' 

To  the  criticism  of  Deventer  that  the  land  rent 
exacted  was  too  high,  it  is  enough  to  point  to 
Raffles's  own  words,  wherein,  after  giving  as  a  stan- 
dard the  scale  which  Deventer  questions,  he  adds  : 
*It  must  be  expected  that  less  than  this  will  be 
levied  for  some  time  to  come.  Various  reasons 
will  induce  a  low  rental  being  established  at  first, 
as  the  energies  of  many  impoverished  and  long 
oppressed  districts  arc  to  be  brought  forth  by 
every  encouragement  Government  can  give  ;  but 
when  cultivation  has  reached  what  may  be  con- 
sidered its  state  of  perfection,  and  the  settlement  is 
completely  matured,  the  above  must  form  the 
o-eneral  rates   of  assessment.' 

o 

Deventer  further  suggests  that  the  abolition  of 
feudal  services  was  merely  on  paper,  but  on  this  it  is 
well  to  note  the  evidence  of  Dr  Horsfield.  '  On  my 
passage  (in  1813)  through  the  Province  of  Cheribon 
I  already  found  the  new  system  in  complete  opera- 
tion. The  feudal  services  had  been  abolished. 
Instead  of  applying,  as  was  formerly  the  custom, 
to  the  native  governor  for  an  allowance  of  carriers 
to  convey  my  baggage  on  public  account,  I  sent  to 
the  bazaar,  where  the  carriers  were  ready  to  afford 
their  services  for  a  regular  payment.' 

The  real  crux  of  the  matter,  from  a  practical  point 
of  view,  lay    in    the   position   of  the  Regents.     We 


92         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

have  seen  that  under  the  old  system  they  had  farmed 
the  entire  land  revenue.  The  Dutch  had  shrunk 
from  coming  in  contact  vv^ith  the  Javanese  people. 
Now,  by  a  stroke  of  the  pen,  all  their  profits,  licit 
and  illicit,  were  abolished.  What  would  be  their 
attitude  towards  the  new  system  ?  On  the  answer 
to  this  question  depended  perhaps  the  tranquillity 
of  the  whole  island.  That  the  change  would 
immensely  benefit  the  downtrodden  people  could 
be  doubted  by  no  sane  man.  But  then,  were  they 
so  downtrodden  as  to  have  reached  the  stage  of 
not  caring  for  a  remedy  ?  The  respect  which  in- 
fluenced the  cautious  Muntinghe  in  giving  ex- 
pression to  a  note  of  doubt,  the  respect  which  gave 
some  reason  to  the  querulous  criticisms  of  both  the 
Bengal  and  the  home  authorities,  was  that  the  new 
system  might  produce  a  hotbed  of  discontent 
amongst  the  most  influential  class  of  the  Javanese. 
Happily  none  of  these  forebodings  were  justified. 
Most  fortunately,  Mahometan  ideas  had  obtained 
full  sway  in  Java,  and  there  was  thus  no  aristocracy 
in  the  island.  The  favourite  Regent  of  to-day  might 
be  discarded  to-morrow,  and  his  children  would  very 
probably  sink  to  a  lower  class.  In  this  state  of 
things  the  new  position  offered  by  Raffles,  with  its  fixed 
and  assured  emoluments,  was  not  to  be  lightly 
rejected.  Those  who  have  most  right  to  speak  are 
agreed  in  saying  that  no  European  really  knows 
what  is  passing  through  an  Oriental's  mind,  and 
perhaps  it  is  not  in  their  nature  to  find  that  delight 
in  order  and  system  which  the  enthusiasm  of  Raffles 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  93 

recognised  around  him.  Nevertheless,  no  overt  sign 
of  discontent  was  given,  and  the  leading  classes  w^ere 
assuredly  not  estranged  from  the  British  influence. 
The  Regents  were  compensated  by  extensive  land 
grants,  which  were  to  be  free  from  the  payment 
of  rent.  They  were  also  paid  a  fixed  salary,  in  return 
for  which  they  undertook  police  duties.  '  In  lieu,' 
wrote  Raffles,  'of  their  precarious,  confined  and 
frequently  taxed  emoluments  under  the  Dutch 
administration,  has  been  substituted  certain  clear 
and  equitable  allowance,  which  I  can  confidently 
assert  has  been  found  agreeable  to  everyone  of 
them.  The  principle  which  I  adopted  in  settling 
the  amount  to  be  paid  to  each  was  as  follows : 
I  visited  each  district  in  person,  explaining  myself 
to  the  Regent  the  nature  and  object  of  the  system 
to  be  introduced,  and  desired  him  to  state  the 
amount  of  his  then  emoluments  in  every  shape.  I 
then  fixed  what  hc'  should  in  future  receive  always 
at  a  sum  exceeding  what  he  stated.' 

We  have  seen  how  tentative  and  cautious  were,  in 
fact,  Raffles's  proceedings,  and  the  criticisms  to  which 
they  have  been  thereby  exposed.  It  is  somewhat 
hard  that  he  should  be  generally  exposed  to  the 
opposite  charge  of  undue  precipitancy.  Started  by 
Crawfurd,  who,  for  various  reasons,  bore  Raffles  no 
great  good  will,  it  has  been  repeated  by  works  of 
authority.  The  charge  was  anticipated  and  met  by 
Raffles.  He  declared  that,  fully  aware  of  the  great 
importance  of  these  measures,  he  had  determined  to 
postpone  their  adoption   until  the  sentiments  of  the 


94-         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Supreme  Government  could  be  received.  As  early  as 
May  1 8 12  he  had  mooted  the  question.  His  despatch 
on  the  subject,  however,  remained  w^ithout  reply. 
Hence  he  concluded  that  silence  gave  consent 
(Letter  to  Lord  Minto,  January  1814).  In  his 
minute  of  June  18 13,  he  wrote  : — '  I  am  fully  aware 
of  the  objections  which  may  be  raised  against  the 
introduction  of  so  new  and  extensive  an  arrange- 
ment, at  a  period  when  the  future  administration 
of  the  colony  is  perhaps  undetermined  and  of  the 
apprehensions  which  may  be  entertained  of  our  pro- 
ceedings fettering  the  future  government  of  the 
settlement,  and  undoubtedly  it  is  due  from  us  to 
give  these  considerations  every  weight  ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  we  are  also  to  consider  that  the 
proposed  arrangement  has  been  in  contemplation 
from  the  day  of  the  fall  of  Djocjocarta,  that  it 
has  already  been  proceeded  on  to  a  considerable 
extent,  and  that  the  minds  of  the  inhabitants  are 
at  this  moment  fully  prepared  for  the  change.  Its 
general  adoption  throughout  the  island  has  been 
delayed  for  the  last  six  months,  in  the  expectation 
of  information  from  Europe,  and  the  period  seems 
now  to  have  arrived  when  it  must  be  either  gener- 
ally introduced,  or  dropped,  perhaps,  for  ever.'  In 
a  letter  to  Sir  R.  Inglis,  dated  February  13,  18 14, 
he  wrote  : — '  In  every  reference  which  has  latterly 
been  made  to  the  Supreme  Government,  a  hesita- 
tion in  forming  an  opinion  for  the  guidance  of  this 
Government  has  been  evinced,  arising  from  the  pro- 
visional  and    uncertain    tenure    of    the    Government 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  95 

as  it  now  stands  ;  and  it  is  possible  that  the  same 
hesitation  may  still  exist  with  regard  to  the  two 
great  (juestions  now  submitted,  and  it  is  on  this 
account  particularly  that  I  am  induced  to  seek 
early  instructions  from  Europe.  I  have  been  forced 
to  act,  in  every  measure  of  importance,  on  my  own 
responsibility,  not  from  the  superior  authorities  being 
ignorant  of  the  real  interests  of  the  colony,  but 
from  a  hesitation  on  their  part  to  involve  them- 
selves with  the  Government  which  might  be  finally 
fixed.  I  have  invariably  invited  and  courted  the 
command  of  the  superior  authorities  on  questions 
which  I  considered  of  moment,  and  necessity  alone, 
and  the  conviction  that  the  favourable  moment  for 
action  might  otherwise  be  lost,  have  induced  me 
to  act  expressly  from  my  own  judgment.  Those 
only  who  have  been  in  similar  cases  can  feel  the 
weight  of  responsibility  which   attaches.' 

Final  judgment  on  the  new  system  was,  in  fact, 
never  pronounced  by  the  Bengal  or  the  home 
authorities.  All  that  our  hero's  friends  could  sug- 
gest was  that  time  was  necessary  to  pronounce 
upon  its  ultimate  effect.  It  inevitably  became 
enveloped  in  the  mist  of  suspicion,  which,  for  the 
time,  prejudiced  Lord  Moira  against  everything 
connected  in  any  way  with  Raffles.  In  the  angry 
letter  of  dismissal  with  which  the  Company  re- 
warded the  labours  of  their  officer,  the  failure  of 
the  new  system  is  assumed  rather  than  maintained. 
Short,  however,  as  was  the  time  allowed  for  the 
vindication   of   these    measures,    and    unpropitious    as 


96         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

were  the  circumstances  in  which  the  experiment  was 
made,  the  inherent  advantages  of  the  new  system  did 
not  fail  at  once  to  show  themselves  from  a  financial 
point  of  view.  Within  the  period  of  two  years  after 
the  introduction  of  the  new  system  of  land  tenure,  the 
revenue  had  been  increased  to  the  amount  of  over  one 
and  a  half  million  rupees.  The  land  rental  amounted 
to  nearly  one  half  of  the  whole  revenues  of  the  island, 
so  that  Raffles  might  reasonably  claim  '  that  the  im- 
provement thus  effected  is  rendered  permanent,  and 
that  a  very  short  time  only  has  been  required  to 
repay,  in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  those  temporary 
and  partial  sacrifices  which,  in  the  introduction  of 
a  radical  change  that  had  equally  in  view  the 
amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  people  and  the 
interests  of  the  Government,  could  not  be  avoided.' 
(Letter  to  E.  I.  Directors,  March   ii,   1816). 

It  is  needless  to  labour  argument,  because  the 
final  vindication  of  this  policy  was  given  by  the 
Dutch  themselves,  who,  on  their  restoration  to  the 
colony,  with  all  their  dislike  and  fear  of  Raffles 
personally,  were  content  to  tread  along  the  path 
he  had  already  marked  out.  To  the  strange 
criticism  of  Colonel  Yule,  who  declared  that 
Raffles  had  left  no  permanent  traces  of  his  work 
in  Java,  may  be  opposed  the  testimony  of  the 
Dutch  official,  Mr  Muntinghe,  than  whom  none 
was  more  competent  to  speak,  who  had  the  candour 
to  assert  that  'the  first,  the  most  difficult,  and 
certainly  the  most  hazardous  step  towards  the  in- 
troduction of  a  system  of  political  government  and 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  97 

regulated  taxation  had  therefore  been  taken  when 
the  Commissioner-General  took  over  the  govern- 
ment of  Java  in   18 16.' 

That  the  work  of  reform  was  in  some  ways 
incomplete,  that  the  burden  of  the  heavy  toll  dues 
on  inland  transit  still  persisted  in  spite  of  the 
Governor's  expressed  disapproval,  is  quite  true,  but 
when  it  is  remembered  how  short  was  the  term  of 
his  government  and  how  difficult  it  was  to  effect 
improvement  when  the  political  future  of  the  island 
remained  constantly  in  doubt,  the  wonder  is  not 
that  there  were  shortcomings,  but  that  the  amount 
of  reform  achieved  was  of  so  far-reaching  and  of 
so  permanent  a  character. 

The  greatest  stumbling-block  to  a  regular  ad- 
ministration had  lain  in  the  native  regencies  being 
scattered  in  different  parts.  The  country  was  mapped 
out  in  regular  districts,  which  were  subdivided  into 
divisions.  The  Netherlands  Commissioners  in  1816, 
while  they  considered  Raffles's  instructions  to  the 
district  Residents  'so  complete  and  accurate'  that  they 
continued  them  almost  entirely  without  alteration,  at 
the  same  time  continued  for  the  most  part  the  divisions 
as  they  had  been  marked  out  by  him. 

While,  however,  the  main  measures  of  land  reform 
dealt  with  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  island,  and 
with  the  tenure  of  the  natives,  unkind  fate  decided 
that  an  altogether  subsidiary  measure  should  have 
a  most  calamitous  influence  on  Raffles's  fortunes. 
Attention  has  been  already  called  to  the  financial 
position  of  the  island    at  the   date   of  the    conquest. 

G 


98  BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

The    discontinuance    of  remittances    of  silver    from 
Europe  after  the  revolution  in  Holland  had  inevitably- 
led  to    the  enforced  use  of  a  paper  currency.     The 
paper    dollar,  as   v^^as    natural    in    the    circumstances, 
tended     rapidly    to     depreciate.     Lord     Minto     had 
accepted    responsibility    for    a   sum    of    eight    and    a 
half  millions  rix-dollars    at    the    value    of  six  and    a 
half  rix    (paper)   dollars    to  one   Spanish   dollar.     In 
spite,  however,  of  this,   the    paper    dollar    continued 
to    depreciate,    and    in    the  autumn    of  1812    it    fell 
to    twelve    or    thirteen    rix    for     a     Spanish    dollar. 
Meanwhile  the  Government  in  all  its  payments  was 
suffering  a  loss  of  one  hundred  per  cent.     This  was 
a  state  of  things  which  could   not  be   endured,  and 
the  only   question  was   how   the  paper  money  could 
be    withdrawn.     Against    the    most    obvious    way  of 
meeting    the    difficulty,    viz.,    the    drawing    of    bills 
upon    Bengal,   there    was    the    express    veto    of    the 
Supreme      Government.       Moreover,      Raffles      felt 
strongly    that    a     colonial    obligation    of    this     kind 
should    in    fairness    fall    on    the    resources    of    the 
colony.     In    this    state   of    things,    the    only    course 
open    appeared    to   be    a    partial   sale    of    the    public 
lands.     By    this    means    about    one-fourth    of     the 
public   debt  could   be   at    once  wiped   out.     It    may 
frankly  be  allowed  that  in  the  special  circumstances 
of  the  case  the  course  adopted  by  Raffles    can  only 
be  defended  as  a  measure  of  necessity  ;    but  it    was 
for    his  critics  to  point    out  an    alternative    measure. 
Lord  Minto  at  least  (November  18 12) assented  'to  the 
absolute  and  exigent  necessity  which  was  the  motive 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES 


99 


and  is  the  justification  of  the  proceedings.  .  .  . 
The  only  plan  for  the  redemption  of  the  paper 
which  could  be  found  appears  very  clearly  to  have 
been  precisely  that  to  which  you  had  recourse.  .  .  . 
I  consider,  therefore,  your  measure  to  have  been 
an  able  expedient  in  a  case  of  great  emergency^'  But 
already  there  is  a  foretaste  of  what  might  be  ex- 
pected from  less  friendly  critics.  '  At  the  same 
time  I  conceive  the  necessity  of  a  prompt  remedy 
to  form  the  essential,  and  indeed  the  indispensable, 
ground  of  the  resolution  that  was  taken,  for  I 
should  not,  I  confess,  have  thought  an  extensive 
alienation  of  the  public  domains  advisable  in  itself, 
under  the  particular  circumstances  of  the  colony 
at  the  time.  First,  it  was  too  important  a  measure 
to  be  adopted  during  a  provisional  government, 
the  duration  of  which  is  more  than  precarious. 
Secondly,  it  ought  (and  naturally  would,  without 
the  pressure  of  immediate  necessity)  to  have  re- 
ceived the  previous  sanction  of  the  Supreme  Govern- 
ment. Thirdly,  although  my  views,  as  you  know, 
lead  to  the  transfer  of  public  territory  to  the 
management  of  individual  -industry,  and  the  crea- 
tion of  a  genuine  landed  interest  .  .  .  yet  I  have 
felt  that  this  change  could  not  be  brought  about 
suddenly.  ...  I  touch  upon  these  points  the 
more  willingly,  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  to 
you  a  caution  on  the  subject  founded  on  my  know- 
ledge of  the  sentiments  which  appear  to  be  most 
prevalent  at  home,  but  which  you  may  not  be 
apprised   of.     There    is    a  great    division    of  opinion 


100        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

on  the  question  of  permanent  settlements  and  the 
extension  of  that  system  to  the  newly- acquired 
provinces  under  the  Presidency  of  Bengal,  which 
has  in  a  great  degree  been  carried  into  effect  during 
my  administration.  The  introduction  of  that  system 
has  been  gradual  in  these  provinces,  but  yet  more 
sudden  than  is  approved  of  at  home.  But  Java  is  in 
a  state  infinitely  less  favourable  to  perpetual  aliena- 
tions, and  you  may  depend  upon  such  measures,  un- 
supported by  particular  exigency,  being  disapproved, 
and  indeed  disavowed  and  annulled,  in  England.' 

There  would  seem  to  be  in  this  passage  some 
confusion  between  Raffles's  general  land  measures 
and  the  particular  sale  which  for  the  most  part 
only  affected  Europeans.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the 
bolt  when  it  fell  was  charged  not  by  motives  of 
general  policy,  but  by  personal  hostility.  Exi- 
gencies of  space  have  forbidden  to  treat  as  it 
deserved  the  gallantry  displayed  by  Colonel  Gillespie 
in  the  conquest  of  Java.  That  gallantry  had 
been  rightly  rewarded  by  the  command  of  the 
troops  in  the  island.  At  first  '  there  was  the  most 
perfect  understanding  between  the  civil  and  military 
authorities  and  Colonel  Gillespie  and  myself.' 
Gillespie  had  indeed  already  (Raffles  is  writing  in 
January  1812)  threatened  to  '  set  us  all  by  the  ears ' 
in  supporting  a  soldier  'against  the  police  magis- 
trate and  the  whole  of  the  Dutch  inhabitants,' 
but  '  the  conclusion  proved  satisfactory  to  every- 
one.' '  It  is  quite  unnecessary  that  I  should  inform 
your  Lordship  that  I  have  rather  a  strange  character 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  loi 

to  deal  with  ;  he  prides  himself  on  his  quixotism, 
but  with  all  his  irregularities  is  a  man  of  so  high 
a  stamp  and  caste  that  I  must  esteem  him.  We 
shall  never  break  without  great  concern  on  my 
part  .  .  .  but  your  Lordship  knows  his  character 
too  well  to  suppose  it  is  practicable  that  we  should 
both  travel  at  the  same  pace.  He  does  and  will 
take  some  of  the  strangest  starts  and  wildest  freaks 
into  his  head  that  ever  entered  into  the  mind  of 
man.'  Unfortunately  differences  tended  to  widen 
between  the  civil  and  the  military  authorities. 
Raffles,  anxious  to  relieve  the  strain  upon  the 
finances,  and  acting  on  the  express  command  of 
Lord  Minto,  desired  to  diminish  the  number  of 
the  troops  in  the  island.  Gillespie,  believing  that 
Java  would  soon  be  handed  over  to  the  Crown, 
and  taking  into  consideration  the  probability  of 
an  attack  by  the  P'rench,  insisted  that  any  reduc- 
tion was  impossible.  The  embarkation  of  a  portion 
of  the  89th  regiment  in  August  18 12  was  deeply 
resented  by  the  General.  When  men  are  once  at 
issue,  fresh  causes  of  difference  do  not  fail  to  arise. 
Raffles  believed  that  the  financial  situation  was 
aggravated  by  the  action  of  Gillespie  in  refusing 
to  allow  the  troops  to  be  paid  in  paper  money. 
Later,  charges  against  Gillespie's  private  conduct 
were  dealt  with  by  Raffles  in  such  a  way  as  to 
rouse  the  wrath  of  the  vindictive  General.  Matters 
went  to  such  extremities  that  for  some  time 
Gillespie  ceased  to  attend  the  meetings  of  Council. 
The    relations    between    the    Lieutenant  -  Governor 


102       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

and  the  General  had  received  the  thoughtful  con- 
sideration of  Lord  Minto.  A  solution  was  found 
by  the  proposal  of  Sir  G.  Nugent,  the  Commander- 
in-Chief  in  Bengal,  to  place  Gillespie  on  his  staff, 
and  send  General  Nightingall  to  Java.  By  this 
means  Lord  Minto  vi^rote,  'a  good  retreat  or  rather 
an  honourable  advantageous  station  is  prepared  for 
Gillespie,  v^^hose  military  character  and  services  I 
shall  always  admire  and  venerate.  Another  desirable 
consequence  of  this  exchange,  I  hope,  may  be  the 
superseding  the  necessity  of  investigating  and  pro- 
nouncing upon  his  political  conduct  in  Java.' 
General  Nightingall,  who  appears  to  have  been  a 
natural  son  of  Lord  Cornwallis,  Lord  Minto  described 
as  '  a  man  of  honour,  and  a  general  in  the  highest 
degree,  his  manner  in  all  respects  as  amiable  as 
I  really  believe  his  conduct  to  be.'  In  fact,  he 
proved  a  most  loyal  and  staunch  friend  to  Raffles. 

While  relations  were  thus  strained  between  General 
Gillespie  and  Raffles,  there  occurred  the  sale  of 
public  lands,  which  took  place  on  January  26, 
1813.  This  sale  had  been  resolved  upon  in  the 
previous  November.  In  the  Minute  of  the  Board 
on  the  subject,  it  was  freely  admitted  that  '  it  would 
undoubtedly  have  been  more  desirable  to  have  delayed 
any  decisive  measures  until  the  Board  could  have 
had  the  honour  of  receiving  the  sentiments  of  the 
Supreme  Government  on  the  several  financial  state- 
ments and  despatches  forwarded  since  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  official  year,  and  the  existing 
uncertainty  with  regard  to  the   future  administration 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  103 

of  the  colony  is  also  a  strong  argument  for  delay, 
but  the  difficulties  which  arise  from  the  depreciation 
of  the  paper  currency  are  such  as  must  be  expected 
to  increase  if  not  immediately  checked  ;  and  what- 
ever may  tend  to  restore  its  value  must  under  any 
circumstances  be  beneficial.'  If  Java  was  not  to 
be  'rendered  a  burden  on  the  established  British 
possessions,'  the  only  course  was  gradually  to  with- 
draw the  whole  mass  of  the  old  paper  from  circulation, 
by  the  sale  of  part  of  the  domains  of  the  island. 
Gillespie  was  not  present  at  the  meeting  of  the 
Council  on  November  4,  1812,  but  in  the  beginning 
of  December  he  forwarded  a  Minute  objecting  to 
the  execution  of  the  measure  in  consequence  of 
the  probability  that  an  approaching  change  in  the 
government  of  Java  was  to  be  expected.  The 
decision  of  the  matter  was  further  postponed  in 
deference  to  Gillespie.  In  a  subsequent  Minute 
of  the  23rd  December,  he  gave  a  qualified  assent 
to  the  proposals  of  the  Council,  if  the  Board,  '  in 
its  mature  deliberation,'  had  determined  that  no 
other  expedient  of  less  magnitude  could  be  adopted 
to  meet  the  exigency.  From  the  confused  and 
blundering  manner  in  which,  at  a  later  date, 
Gillespie  supported  his  contention,  it  is  clear  that 
no  light  or  leading  was  to  be  obtained  from  him. 
His  only  practical  suggestion  was  to  draw  bills  on 
Bengal,  a  course  which  had  been  expressly  for- 
bidden by  the  Supreme  Government.  In  these 
circumstances  the  sale  of  land,  although  Raffles 
would   have   preferred    to    wait    till    the   Commission 


104        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

dealing  with  the  whole  subject  of  land  tenure  had 
issued  their  report,  was  a  measure  of  absolute  necessity. 
The  sale  was  therefore  finally  fixed  for  the  26th 
January  1813.  The  advertisement  announcing  it 
stated  that  the  sale  would  take  place  by  public 
auction,  unless  the  lands  were  previously  disposed 
of  by  private  contract.  It  had  been  the  practice 
under  the  Dutch  for  members  of  Council  to  become 
proprietors  of  land  under  the  colonial  regulations, 
and  so  Mr  Muntinghe,  a  Dutch  gentleman,  who 
in  the  Council  warmly  supported  the  measure,  did 
not  deem  it  wrong  to  become  himself  a  purchaser. 
He,  however,  informed  the  other  members  of  his 
intention ;  and  no  word  of  disapproval  was  ex- 
pressed by  General  Gillespie.  The  circumstances 
in  which  the  Governor  became  an  owner,  under 
the  public  sale,  are  clear  enough.  Rumours  re- 
garding the  possibility  and  even  the  legality  of 
the  sale  had  been  industriously  circulated.  There 
was  a  serious  risk  lest  the  result  should  be  a 
fiasco.  In  this  state  of  things  a  Mr  Engelhard, 
a  former  Governor  of  Java,  and  a  person  of  con- 
siderable influence,  approached  Raffles  with  the 
view  of  inducing  him  to  go  shares  with  him  in 
the  purchase  of  some  lands  adjoining  Engelhard's 
estate.  That  our  hero's  conduct  was  in  his  own 
interests  foolish  cannot  be  questioned.  It  is  quite 
plain  that  he  acted  more  on  public  than  on  private 
grounds ;  indeed,  his  actions  were  directly  opposed 
to  his  own  private  interests.  He  caused  the 
biddings    to    be    run     up ;     by    which     m.eans    the 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  105 

price  was  increased  thirty  or  forty  per  cent.  No 
wonder  that  'surprise  and  mortification'  reigned 
on  Mr  Engelhard's  countenance.  Anyone  who 
cares  to  go  through  the  evidence  can  convince 
himself  that  the  whole  superstructure  of  calumny 
and  misrepresentation  which  Gillespie  erected  over 
the  original  indiscretion  of  the  Governor  falls  to 
the  ground.  But  that  Raffles's  conduct  was  in- 
discreet can  be  proved  out  of  his  own  mouth, 
'  Everything,'  he  declared,  '  was  open,  candid  and 
avowed,  except  in  so  far  that  when  I  acceded  to 
Mr  Engelhard's  proposal,  I  did  not  allow  it  to 
be  known,  until  the  lots  had  been  sold,  that  I 
had  any  participation  in  them,  because  such  a 
knowledge  might  have  influenced  the  bidders, 
and  the  sale  might  have  been  affected  by  it.' 
Now,  it  is  pretty  obvious  that  conduct  which 
requires  elaborate  explanation  had  best  be  avoided 
by  men  in  the  position  of  Raffles.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  it  gave  —  or  might  be  feigned  to  give — 
Gillespie  the  opportunity  he  wanted.  In  the 
February  following,  just  at  the  time  when  his 
own  conduct  was  in  question  with  regard  to  his 
interference  with  native  rights,  he  fired  off  a 
letter  to  Sir  G.  Nugent,  wherein  he  stated  that 
the  Lieutenant  -  Governor  and  other  officials  had 
become  '  the  joint  owners  of  the  rich  coffee 
plantations.'  '  The  real  value  of  these  lands, 
alienated  in  perpetuity  for  an  inadequate  sum  of 
Spanish  dollars,'  he  alleged  to  be  '  incalculable.' 
This     letter,    in    effect,     accused    Raffles     of     gross 


io6       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

dishonesty,  and  yet  what  was  Gillespie's  subsequent 
conduct  ?  He  did  not  breathe  a  syllable  of  accusa- 
tion against  the  Governor  in  any  public  manner. 
On  the  contrary,  he  allowed  himself  to  become 
reconciled  to  him  through  the  intervention  of 
Captain  G.  Elliot,  a  son  of  Lord  Minto.  He 
openly  'cancelled  the  differences  that  formerly 
subsisted  between  the  Lieutenant  -  Governor  and 
himself,  he  was  much  concerned  those  differences 
had  ever  taken  place,  he  had  a  sincere  friendship 
for  Mr  Raffles,  and  would  defend  the  measures  of 
his  administration  wherever  he  went.'  It  was  in 
such  terms  that  he  spoke,  according  to  the  sworn 
testimony  of  men  of  honour,  of  the  man  whom  he 
had  already  secretly  attacked,  and  against  whom  he 
was  shortly  to  bring  the  most  serious  accusations. 

What  may  have  been  Gillespie's  intentions  when 
leaving  Java  it  is  impossible  to  say.  On  arriving, 
however,  at  Calcutta  he  found  congenial  soil 
wherein  to  sow  the  seeds  of  mischief.  Lord  Moira 
was  a  soldier,  strongly  imbued  with  class  and 
professional  prejudices.  It  was  easy  to  represent 
Raffles  to  him  as  an  incompetent  civilian  who 
had  owed  his  promotion  to  private  influence.  The 
manner  in  which  Gillespie's  charges  were  dealt 
with  certainly  does  not  reflect  credit  on  the 
Supreme  Government.  In  the  seventeen  heads  of 
inquiry,  into  which  they  reduced  Gillespie's  ram- 
bling charges,  questions  of  policy  and  of  conduct 
are  jumbled  up  together.  Surely,  quite  apart  from 
the  question    of  the    expediency  of  the  sale  of  the 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  107 

Government  lands,  or  the  question  whether  the 
sale  was  made  in  the  mode  most  conducive  to  the 
interests  of  Government,  there  vv^as  the  question — 
whether  or  not  Raffles  was  a  dishonest  man  who 
used  his  public  opportunities  to  feather  his  own 
private  nest.  It  might  be  necessary  at  some  time 
to  sit  in  judgment  on  the  general  question  of  the 
Governor's  administration,  but  it  was  surely  proper 
to  keep  wholly  distinct  the  specific  offences  with 
which  he  was  charged.  As  Raffles  wrote  in  a 
private  letter  : — '  Errors  in  judgment  may  be  found 
in  the  complicated  administration  with  which  I  am 
entrusted,  measures  of  policy  depend  in  a  consider- 
able degree  on  opinion,  and  there  may  be  some 
differences  of  opinion,  perhaps,  with  regard  to  those 
which  have  been  adopted  by  this  government ;  but 
the  accusations  against  my  moral  character  must 
be  determined  by  facts,  and  on  this  ground  I  will 
challenge  my  accusers  to  produce  any  one  act  of 
my  government  in  which  I  have  been  actuated  by 
corrupt  motives,  or  guided  by  views  of  sinister 
advantage  to  myself.'  So  carelessly  and  even 
ineptly  was  the  case  drawn  up  that  among  the 
measures  that  appeared  to  the  Supreme  Govern- 
ment especially  to  need  explanation  was  the  im- 
position of  an  annual  duty  of  five  per  cent,  upon  the 
paper  currency,  a  measure  which  was  directly 
enacted  by  Lord  Minto,  a  fact  which  should  of 
course  have  been  within  the  knowledge  of  the 
Bengal  authorities.  The  inevitable  result  of  the 
course    of    proceeding     instituted    by    the    Supreme 


io8       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Government  was  enforced  delay,  than  which 
nothing  can  be  more  unfortunate  when  questions 
of  character  are  concerned.  In  the  particular  case 
of  Raffles  it  did  not  so  much  matter,  because  no 
one  in  Java  seriously  believed  that  he  had  acted 
dishonestly.  Still  the  delay  was  most  unfair  to 
Raffles  himself.  In  March  1814  he  wrote  to  Mr 
Ramsay:- — 'While  you  are  quietly  gliding  on  in 
the  smooth  and  sunny  stream  of  private  life,  it  is 
my  lot  to  be  tossed  on  boisterous  billows,  and  to 
be  annoyed  with  all  the  clouds  and  winds  which 
ensue  from  party  spirit.  Without  family  pretensions, 
fortune  or  powerful  friends,  it  has  been  my  lot  to 
obtain  the  high  station  which  I  now  fill  ;  and  I 
have  not  been  without  my  due  proportion  of  envy 
in  consequence.  After  this  you  will  not  be  surprised 
at  what  follows.  You  are  aware  of  the  differences 
which  occurred  between  me  and  Major-General 
Gillespie,  and  that  he  in  consequence  applied  to 
be  relieved  from  the  military  command.  Arriving 
in  Bengal  after  Lord  Minto  had  left  it,  he  found 
the  new  Governor-General  unacquainted  with  all 
that  had  previously  passed,  and  succeeded  to  a 
certain  extent  in  impressing  him  favourably  in  his 
behalf.  He  was  committed,  in  the  course  of  some 
of  our  differences,  by  assertions  which  he  had 
made,  and  finding  that  he  had  succeeded  in  directing 
the  current  of  public  opinion  a  good  deal  against 
me,  he  has  brought  regular  charges  against  both 
my  administration  and  character.  The  whole  are,  I 
thank  God,  easy  to  be  repelled  ;  and  the  closer  the 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  109 

investigation  the  purer  my  conduct  will  appear.  .  .  . 
My  enemies  have  said  much  and  written  much  ;  but 
in  the  end  truth  and  honesty  must  prevail.' 

A  striking  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
Raffles  received  the  charges  is  given  by  Captain 
Travers : — 'Despatches  were  received  from  Bengal 
communicating  to  Mr  Raffles  the  unlocked  -  for 
and  very  unexpected  intelligence  of  Major-General 
Gillespie  having  presented  to  the  Supreme  Govern- 
ment a  list  of  charges  against  his  administration  in 
Java.  These  charges  were  of  a  most  grave  and 
serious  nature,  but  Mr  Raffles  met  them  like  an 
innocent  man.  On  the  first  perusal  of  them  his 
plan  of  reply  was  formed  ;  and  he  answered  every 
charge  in  the  most  full,  clear,  satisfactory  manner 
.  .  .  but  it  is  well  worthy  of  remark  that  when 
Mr  Raffles  had  finished  his  answer  to  the  charges, 
he  handed  the  whole  to  General  Nightingall  to 
peruse,  who,  having  got  through  them,  declared 
that  although  (as  he  declared  on  his  first  assuming 
the  command  of  the  forces  in  the  island)  it  was 
his  fixed  intention  to  have  avoided  all  interference 
with  past  occurrences  and  to  have  kept  clear  of 
any  differences  which  had  taken  place  previous  to 
his  arrival,  yet  after  a  careful  perusal  of  the  docu- 
ments which  had  been  laid  before  him,  and  with 
a  full  and  firm  conviction  in  his  mind  of  the  entire 
innocence  of  Mr  Raffles  of  all  and  every  charge 
brought  forward  by  Major-General  Gillespie,  he 
could  no  longer  remain  a  quiet  spectator,  and 
therefore    in     the    handsomest,    because    unsolicited, 


no       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

manner  he  came  forward  to  offer  Mr  Raffles  all 
the  support  and  assistance  in  his  power  to  give. 
At  the  time  when  these  charges  were  received,  and 
their  reception  was  a  surprise  to  every  person,  the 
Government  House  at  Buitenzorg  was  quite  filled 
with  strangers.  A  large  party,  composed  of  both 
Dutch  and  English,  had  been  invited  to  witness 
the  performance  of  a  play  which  was  got  up  chiefly 
by  the  members  of  the  Governor's  staff.  During 
this  anxious  time,  when  Mr  Raffles  had  so  much 
on  his  mind,  not  a  visitor  could  perceive  the 
slightest  alteration  in  his  manner.  He  was  the 
same  cheerful,  amiable  person  they  had  always 
found  him.  At  dinner  and  in  the  evening  he 
appeared  perfectly  disengaged,  and  only  seemed 
anxious  how  best  to  promote  and  encourage  the 
amusement,  and  contribute  to  the  happiness  and 
enjoyment  of  all  around  him. 

'  When  the  clear  and  satisfactory  reply  was  drawn 
out  ...  a  proposition  was  made  in  Council,  and 
was  recommended  by  General  Nightingall,  that 
confidential  friends  should  be  sent  in  charge  of 
copies  of  these  despatches  to  Bengal,  and  to  Eng- 
land, to  meet  the  ex  parte  statements  which  were 
known  to  be  in  circulation  in  both  places.  Mr 
Assey,  the  Secretary  to  Council,  was  selected  to 
proceed  to  Bengal,  and  as  a  vessel  was  then  under 
despatch  for  England,  it  was  deemed  advisable  to 
send  me  in  charge  of  these  despatches,  together 
with  a  copy  of  the  charges,  and  the  Reply  sent 
to    the    Supreme    Government.      Before    the    vessel 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  in 

reached  England  the  fate  of  Java  had  been  decided. 
Consequently  Java  and  its  dependencies  ceased  to 
be  of  any  interest  to  Great  Britain.' 

Whether,  however,  Java  did  or  did  not  remain 
British,  it  was  none  the  less  necessary  that  public 
men  accused  of  grave  misconduct  should  be  either 
condemned  or  acquitted,  yet  it  was  not  till  the 
autumn  of  1815  that  the  Supreme  Government 
pronounced  judgment  on  a  case  the  main  features 
of  which  presented  little  difficulty.  Raffles  was 
deeply  hurt  that  no  acknowledgment  was  received  by 
him  of  his  elaborate  defence.  A  further  misfortune 
happened  to  him  in  the  untimely  death  of  General 
Gillespie,  who  died  on  October  31,  1814,  fighting 
gallantly  at  the  unsuccessful  assault  on  Kalunga. 

When  the  final  decision  was  adopted  it  amounted 
to  an  acquittal  so  far  as  moral  guilt  was  concerned, 
but  no  acquittal  could  have  been  expressed  in  a  more 
grudging  or  graceless  fashion.  In  the  preceding  May, 
Lord  Moira  had  expressed  himself  in  a  letter  to 
Council  in  terms  of  much  stronger  condemnation. 
He  then  in  effect  pronounced  a  verdict  of  '  not 
proven.'  '  As  far,  therefore,'  he  wrote,  '  as  the  docu- 
ments now  before  Government  afford  the  means  of 
forming  a  decision,  I  cannot  but  concur  with  your 
honourable  Board  in  acquitting  Mr  Raffles  in  so  far 
as  his  integrity  and  moral  character  may  be  impli- 
cated. At  the  same  time,  however,  I  am  of  opinion 
that  Major -General  Gillespie  is  entitled  to  equal 
consideration,  and  that  Government  cannot  decide 
from  the  papers  now  before  them  that  the  informa- 


112       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

tion  he  afforded  has  been  found  to  be  incorrect.  .  .  . 
The  points  at  issue  .  .  .  cannot  be  said  to  have  been 
brought  to  that  fair  degree  of  investigation  on  both 
sides  w^hich  alone  would  acquire  or  w^arrant  a  decision 
of  Government  implying  the  heavy  condemnation  of 
either  party.'      The  purchase  of  land  had  been  *  an 
act    of  the    highest    indiscretion,   evincing  a    perfect 
ignorance  of  the  principles  of  government  as  applic- 
able to  our  situation   in   this  country,  and  it  w^ould 
be  wrong   were  I   to    disguise    that    it    has    operated 
greatly    to    shake    the    confidence   which    I    should 
naturally  wish   to  feel   towards  a  person  in  his  high 
situation.  ...     I  must  confess  that  were  there  not 
every  reason  to  suppose  the  colony  to  be  on  the  eve 
of  passing  from  our  hands,  I  should   have  been  dis- 
posed to   have  visited  the   transaction   with   a  public 
proof  of  disapprobation,  combining  this  serious  error 
with   the  frequent  instances  of  mismanagement  ex- 
hibited in  the  conduct  of  the  affairs  of  that  govern- 
ment, and  more  especially  in   its  financial   concerns, 
I  should  have  conceived  it  essential  to  the  well-being 
of  that  colony,  as  well  as  to  our  security  in  a  time 
of  great   financial  embarrassment,   to    have    proposed 
the  removal  of  Mr  Raffles.  .  .  .     With  much  con- 
cern I   say   that  the  management  of  affairs    by   Mr 
Raffles  in   Java  appears  consecutively   injudicious    in 
the  extreme.' 

In  the  interval  between  the  despatch  of  this  letter 
and  the  final  decision  of  October  17,  18 15,  the  order 
had  arrived  from  England  removing  Raffles  from  the 
government  of  Java.     Whether  the  change   in  tone 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  113 

is  to  be  ascribed  to  this,  or  whether  pressure  had 
been  applied  by  the  other  members  of  Council,  Mr 
Edmonstone  and  Mr  Seton,  the  difference  in  tone 
between  the  two  documents  is  very  striking.  Mr 
Edmonstone,  in  his  Minute  of  June  18,  declared:  — 
'  Of  the  integrity  of  his  conduct,  of  the  purity  of 
the  motives  which  regulated  his  proceedings,  of  his 
zealous  and  laborious  exertions  in  the  prosecution  of 
measures  which,  whatever  may  be  our  judgment  of 
them,  appeared  to  him  conducive  to  the  interests  of 
the  public  service,  I  acknowledge  my  entire  convic- 
tion.' Mr  Seton  expressed  himself  in  similar  lan- 
guage. At  the  same  time  both  were  very  careful 
to  avoid  any  approval  of  Raffles's  public  measures. 
'  I  am  well  aware,'  said  Mr  Edmonstone,  '  that  the 
possession  of  Java,  so  far  from  yielding  the  advan- 
tages expected  to  arise  from  it,  has  proved  a  heavy 
burden  on  the  finances  of  the  parent  State.  How 
far  this  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  effects  of  an  im- 
provident administration  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this 
Minute  to  inquire.  The  evils  of  financial  embarrass- 
ment arising  from  the  internal  circumstances  of  the 
island  at  the  period  of  the  conquest,  the  deficiency 
of  specie,  the  absence  of  former  sources  of  supply 
and  the  defect  of  an  export  trade  speedily  succeeded 
our  occupation  of  the  island.  Whether  or  not  they 
were  susceptible  of  remedy,  whether  or  not,  by  a 
more  economical  system  of  government  and  by  skil- 
ful financial  management,  the  burdens  of  those  evils 
could  have  been  removed  or  alleviated,  it  is  not  the 
object  of  the  present  discussion  to  decide.'     Mr  Seton 

H 


114        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

wrote  'that  Mr  Raffles  has  not  succeeded  in  his 
endeavours  may,  I  think,  be  attributed  to  the  ex- 
hausted state  in  which  he  found  the  island,  to  the 
annihilation  of  its  export  trade,  to  a  want  of  specie, 
and,  under  the  great  disadvantage  of  these  difficulties, 
to  the  fatal  necessity  of  engaging  in  early  and 
expensive  wars  with  the  Sultans  of  Palembang  and 
Djocjocarta.' 

Although  these  gentlemen  were  obviously  more 
inclined  to  favour  Raffles  than  was  Lord  Moira, 
they  concurred  in  the  Minute  by  which  his  final 
judgment  was  expressed.  The  letter  from  home 
had  left  it  to  the  Supreme  Court  to  decide  whether 
or  not  Raffles  should  be  allowed  to  take  up  the 
appointment  of  Resident  at  Bencoolen,  provisionally 
conferred  on  him  by  Lord  Minto,  in  case  Java 
should  be  restored  to  the  Dutch.  On  this  point 
the  decision  was  in  his  favour,  but  for  us  who 
approach  Raffles  as  a  builder  of  Greater  Britain,  it 
is  annoying  as  well  as  melancholy  to  note  the  lan- 
guage in  which  Lord  Moira  couched  his  decision. 
'  With  reference  to  that  part  of  the  Honourable 
Court's  instructions,  which  relates  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  Mr  Raffles  to  the  Residency  of  Fort 
Marlborough,  the  Governor  -  General  in  Council 
observes  that  nothing  has  occurred  in  the  course  of 
the  deliberations  respecting  Mr  Raffles's  conduct  to 
authorise  an  opinion  affecting  his  moral  character, 
and  although  he  has  not  succeeded  in  administering 
the  extensive  and  important  duties  of  the  government 
of  Java  with  that  degree  of  efficiency  which  is  indis- 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  115 

pensable  to  secure  the  advantages  held  out  by  Mr 
Raffles  himself  from  the  possession  of  the  colony,  yet 
there  does  not  appear  to  be  reason  to  apprehend  that 
Mr  Raffles  is  not  competent  to  acquit  himself  with 
due  benefit  to  his  employers  in  the  less  complicated 
duties  of  the  Residency  at  Bencoolen.' 

What  wonder  that  when  his  merits  were  thus 
valued  Raffles  decided  to  appeal  to  C^sar,  and  to 
have  from  the  Court  of  Directors  a  final  judgment 
pronounced  upon  his  case  ?  It  is  true  that  the 
decision  of  the  Supreme  Government  had  been  ac- 
companied by  able  and  exhaustive  minutes,  by  Mr 
Edmonstone  and  Mr  Seton,  of  a  far  more  sympa- 
thetic character.  Still  it  was  the  language  of  the 
supreme  authority  to  which  men  would  naturally 
turn.  '  Conscious  in  his  own  mind  that  his  constant 
study  had  been  to  promote,  to  the  best  of  his 
abilities,  the  interests  and  honour  of  his  country, 
and  to  render  the  establishment  of  a  British  admin- 
istration   in   these  colonies  a   memorable  era   amon* 

o 

them  in  the  amelioration  and  improvement  of  their 
population,'  he  was  naturally  shocked  at  the  grudg- 
ing and  captious  tone  of  Lord  Moira's  comments. 
The  final  decision  of  the  Court  of  Directors,  which 
was  dated  February  13,  181 7,  was  fortunately  couched 
in  a  wholly  different  strain.  '  After  a  scrupulous 
examination  of  all  the  documents  .  .  .  and  an  atten- 
tive perusal  of  the  Minutes  of  the  Governor-General 
and  of  the  other  members  composing  the  Council, 
when  it  was  under  consideration,  we  think  it  due  to 
Mr  Raffles,  to  the  interests  of  our  service,  and  to  the 


ii6       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

cause  of  truth,  explicitly  to  declare  our  decided  con- 
viction that  the  charges,  in  so  far  as  they  went  to  im- 
plicate the  moral  character  of  that  gentleman,  have  not 
only  not  been  made  good,  but  that  they  have  been 
disproved  to  an  extent  which  is  seldom  practicable 
in  a  case  of  defence.  It  is  not  now  our  intention  to 
discuss  the  expediency  of  the  leading  measures  of  the 
administration  of  Java  while  Mr  Raffles  presided  over 
the  government  of  the  island.  The  policy  of  those 
measures  is  not  only  separable  from  the  motives 
which  dictated  them,  but  there  are  cogent  reasons 
why  they  should  be  kept  altogether  distinct  and 
separate  on  the  present  occasion.  Before  pronouncing 
upon  the  financial  operations  of  that  Government,  we 
are  desirous  of  fuller  information  and  further  time  to 
deliberate  on  their  tendency  and  effects,  as  well  as 
on  the  circumstances  under  which  they  were  adopted. 
Were  their  unreasonableness,  improvidence  and  in- 
efficacy  clearly  established,  this  would  only  indicate 
error  or  defect  of  judgment,  or,  at  most,  incompet- 
ence in  Mr  Raffles  for  the  high,  and,  in  many 
respects,  exceedingly  difficult  situation  which  he 
filled.  But  the  purity  as  well  as  the  propriety  of 
many  of  his  acts  as  Lieutenant-Governor  having 
been  arraigned,  accusations  having  been  lodged  against 
him,  which,  if  substantiated,  must  have  proved  fatal 
to  his  character  and  highly  injurious,  if  not  ruinous, 
to  his  prospects  in  life,  his  conduct  having  been 
subjected  to  a  regular  and  solemn  investigation,  and 
this  investigation  having  demonstrated  to  our  minds 
the    utter    groundlessness   of   the    charges    exhibited 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  117 

against  him,  in  so  far  as  they  affected  his  honour,  we 
think  that  he  is  entitled  to  all  the  advantage  of 
this  opinion,  and  of  an  early  and  public  expression 
of  it. 

'  Mr  Edmonstone,  in  his  elaborate  and  able  Minute, 
has  taken  so  comprehensive  and  just  a  viev/  of  all 
the  acts  which  constituted  the  grounds  of  imputation 
against  the  personal  character  of  Mr  Raffles,  that  it 
is  quite  unnecessary  for  us  to  enter  into  a  detailed 
scrutiny  of  the  matters,  either  of  charge  or  refuta- 
tion. On  most,  if  not  all  the  points  at  issue,  we 
concur  with  Mr  Edmonstone  both  in  his  reasonings 
and  conclusions,  and  whatever  judgment  may  be 
ultimately  passed  on  the  various  measures  of  the  late 
Government  of  Java,  which  underwent  review  in  the 
course  of  the  investigation  into  the  conduct  of  its 
head,  we  are  satisfied,  not  merely  that  they  stand 
exempt  from  any  sordid  or  selfish  taint,  but  that  they 
sprung  from  motives  perfectly  correct  and  laudable. 
If  we  notice  the  circumstance  of  Mr  Raffles  having 
been  a  purchaser  of  lands  at  the  public  sales  on  the 
island,  it  is  for  the  purpose  not  so  much  of  animad- 
verting, after  all  that  has  passed,  on  the  indiscretion 
of  the  act  (for  it  was  unquestionably  indiscreet)  as  of 
expressing  our  firm  persuasion  that  he  has  stated, 
without  equivocation  or  reserve,  the  reasons  which 
induced  him  to  engage  in  these  transactions,  and 
that  they  do  not  at  all  derogate  from  those  principles 
of  integrity  by  which  we  believe  his  public  conduct 
to  have  been  uniformly  governed.' 


CHAPTER    VII 

THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    JAVA    (iS  1 1-16)— concluded 

Policy  as  to  Eastern  Islands — Treatment  by  Home  Government — 
Japan — Measures  as  to  Slavery — Opium — Question  of  Reten- 
tion of  Java — Dismissal — Death  of  Mrs  Raffles — Journeys  to 
the  Eastward. 

It  has  already  been  noted  that  Raffles  had  recognised 
from  an  early  date  that  the  interests  of  the  various 
islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago  were  closely  con- 
nected with  each  other.  In  his  letter  to  Lord 
Buckinghamshire,  of  August  5,  1815,  Raffles  states  : — 
'It  will  be  found  that  on  the  first  establishment  of 
the  British  dominion  in  these  seas,  it  was  con- 
templated to  place  the  Moluccas  and  the  general 
control  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago  in  the  hands  of 
the  Java  Government.  Acting  under  this  impression, 
our  attention  was  directed  to  the  re-establishment 
of  the  out-stations,  the  general  suppression  of  piracy, 
and  the  introduction  of  that  system  of  wholesome 
control  which  had  of  late  been  wrested  from  the 
hands  of  our  predecessors.  Military  expeditions 
became  necessary  ;  and  expenses  for  the  benefit  of 
trade  and  the  British  interests  in  general,  and 
altogether    foreign     from    what    would     have     been 

118 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  119 

demanded  for  the  internal  management  of  Java, 
also  were  of  necessity  incurred.'  In  fact,  however, 
the  Moluccas  had  become  a  Crown  colony  in  18 10, 
and  it  was  impossible  to  find  within  the  four 
corners  of  our  hero's  commission  the  extensive 
powers  which  he  claimed.  Raffles  considered  [see 
Minute  on  Piracy  of  September  8,  18 14)  himself 
as  '  continuing  to  act '  in  the  cases  of  islands  not 
directly  connected  with  Java  *  in  my  capacity  as 
political  agent  for  the  Governor-General  with  the 
Malay  States.'  He  put  in  practice,  though  probably 
he  did  not  know,  the  good  old  legal  maxim,  boni 
judlcis  est  ampliare  jurhdictionem.  It  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  in  dry  law  his  contention  could  not  be 
sustained.  Be  this  as  it  may,  there  was  no  question 
as  to  the  wisdom  of  his  advice.  '  I  cannot  hesitate 
to  record  my  opinion  that  it  is  more  consistent  with 
the  honour,  character  and  interest  of  the  British 
nation  and  of  the  East  India  Company  in  particular, 
and  at  the  same  time  most  conducive  to  an  improve- 
ment in  the  condition  and  happiness  of  the  natives 
of  these  islands,  and  to  the  interests  of  commerce 
and  prosperity,  that  these  States  shall  continue  to 
be  separated  from  the  political  life  of  Java.  .  .  . 
Shall  we  not  avail  ourselves  of  the  present  oppor- 
tunity afforded  by  the  possession  of  Java  to  establish 
a  permanent  and  preponderating  influence  in  these 
seas,  an  influence  that  may  not  be  affected  by  the 
political  fate  of  Java,  and  will  at  all  times  insure 
to  British  trade  the  commerce  and  advantages  of 
the  eastern  islands?'     Raffles  was  preaching  to   deaf 


120       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

ears.  The  East  India  Company  had  got  quite 
enough  trouble  and  responsibility  with  the  care  of 
India  itself,  and  was  in  no  mood  to  consider  far- 
reaching  views  with  regard  to  the  Far  East.  The 
active  interest  of  Raffles's  despatches  lay  in  the 
opportunity  they  gave  to  snub  the  over-zealous 
Governor  for  exceeding  his  authority.  Much  corre- 
spondence took  place  over  an  expedition  against 
Sambas  in  Borneo.  In  this  particular  case,  how- 
ever, Raffles  was  able  to  show  that  he  had  only 
acted  at  the  request  of  the  Imperial  naval  authorities. 
Nevertheless,  Raffles  had  interfered  with  the  internal 
concerns  of  Borneo,  and  so  in  the  letter  to  the 
Supreme  Government,  May  5,  1815,  announcing 
his  dismissal,  so  often  referred  to,  we  read  that  the 
Court  are  '  especially  pleased  to  find  that  you  have 
annulled  the  engagements  entered  into  by  the  Colonial 
Government  with  the  native  chiefs  of  Borneo.'  In 
another  matter  with  which  the  Java  Records  in  the 
India  Office  are  much  concerned,  Raffles  was  act- 
ing strictly  within  his  legal  rights.  The  Batavian 
Government  had  possessed  a  monopoly  of  the  European 
trade  with  Japan.  It  was  true  that  of  late  years 
this  trade  had  sunk  to  very  small  proportions,  and, 
in  fact,  had  been  discontinued  for  four  years,  but 
Raffles  insisted  that  '  the  trade  heretofore  carried 
on  with  Batavia  forms  no  criterion  by  which  the 
extent  and  value  of  the  trade  is  to  be  judged,  when 
a  more  liberal  and  upright  policy  is  pursued.  It 
was  just  as  extensive  as  it  suited  the  personal  interest 
of    the    Resident    to    make    it  ;     but    on    a    different 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  121 

system  it  may  be  contemplated  that  its  importance 
will  not  fall  short  of  that  which  is  now  attached 
to  China.  A  British  factory  once  established,  that 
of  the  Dutch  would  be  superseded  for  ever.  The 
demand  for  woollens  and  hardware,  the  staple  manu- 
factures of  Great  Britain,  would  be  unlimited.  No 
prejudices  are  to  be  surmounted  ;  the  climate  and 
habits  of  the  people  create  a  want  which  it  would 
be  our  interest  to  supply.' 

The  mission  which  was  sent  in  June  1813,  consist- 
ing of  Mr  Wardemaar  and  Dr  Ainslie,  was  partially 
successful.  The  trade  was  to  be  continued,  but 
was  at  first  to  be  carried  on  under  the  Dutch 
name.  The  action  of  the  Supreme  Government, 
however,  in  refusing  its  approval  to  these  arrange- 
ments, nipped  the  scheme  in  its  bud.  On  this 
subject,  which  appealed  especially  to  men  of  busi- 
ness, the  Court  of  Directors  were  inclined  to  agree 
with  Raffles  and  not  with  Lord  Moira.  Though 
their  expectations  of  benefit  from  this  trade  were 
not  great,  they  would  have  been  '  disposed  to  regard 
with  approbation  any  fair  attempt '  towards  its 
establishment. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  deal — though  in 
summary  fashion — with  the  leading  measures  of 
Raffles  with  regard  to  the  administration  of  justice 
and  the  tenure  of  the  land.  Some  other  measures 
of  his  government  must  be  noticed.  Althoug-h  it 
was  manifestly  impossible  consistently  with  recog- 
nised rights  of  property  to  emancipate  the  slaves 
found  in  Java  at   the    time   of  the  conquest,  regula- 


122       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

tions  were  at  once  instituted  which  greatly  mitigated 
the  evils  of  the  system.  The  duty  on  the  importa- 
tion of  slaves  was  doubled,  and  no  child  could  be 
imported  under  the  age  of  fourteen.  An  annual 
registry  of  slaves  was  taken,  and  slaves  not  registered 
within  a  certain  time  were  declared  free.  Raffles 
tells  how  a  native  chief  who  had  inherited  fifty 
domestic  slaves  proudly  said,  '  Then  I  will  not  register 
my  slaves  ;  they  shall  be  free  ;  hitherto  they  have 
been  kept  such,  because  it  was  the  custom,  and  the 
Dutch  liked  to  be  attended  by  slaves  when  they 
visited  the  palace  ;  but  as  that  is  not  the  case  with 
the  British,  they  shall  cease  to  be  slaves  ;  for  long 
have  I  felt  shame,  and  my  blood  has  run  cold  when 
I  reflected  on  what  I  once  saw  at  Batavia  and 
Samarang,  where  human  beings  were  exposed  for 
public  sale,  placed  on  a  table,  and  examined  like 
sheep  and  oxen.' 

On  the  proclamation  of  the  British  Statute  de- 
claring the  further  traffic  in  slaves  to  be  felony,  that 
Act  with  all  its  provisions  was  made  a  colonial  law. 
In  other  respects  Raffles  sought  to  ameliorate  the 
position  of  the  slaves.  They  were  no  longer  to 
be  considered  as  objects  of  real  property,  but  as 
the  possessors  of  personal  rights,  bound  only  to 
unlimited  service.  The  powers  of  masters  were 
strictly  limited,  and  wrongs  done  to  slaves  treated 
as  other  wrongs.  Slaves  were  given  the  right  of 
acquiring  separate  property,  and  enabled  to  purchase 
therewith  their  liberty  after  seven  years'  service. 
These    alterations    in    the    law    were    submitted    to 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  123 

the  Supreme  Government,  but  they  had  not  received 
its  approval  at  the  time  of  the  restoration  of  the 
colony  to  the  Dutch. 

On  another  subject  we  find  Raffles  anticipating 
the  trend  of  subsequent  philanthropic  thought.  He 
was  the  first  public  man  to  recognise  the  evils 
inflicted  on  the  population  by  the  abuse  of  opium, 
and  in  August  18 15  w^e  find  him  proposing  police 
regulations  for  prohibiting  its  introduction  and 
retail  in  any  districts  of  Java  except  the  towns  of 
Batavia,  Samarang  and  Sourabaya. 

To  do  justice  to  our  hero's  labours,  it  is 
necessary  to  emphasise  at  the  risk  of  repetition 
the  precarious  nature  of  the  British  occupation. 
We  have  already  noted  the  '  hesitation '  which 
led  the  superior  authorities  to  shirk  any  kind  of 
responsibility.  From  the  draft  of  a  letter  in  the 
India  Office  from  Lord  Bathurst,  dated  October 
26,  18 13,  it  would  seem  that  it  had  been  at  last 
definitely  decided  to  convert  Java  into  a  Crown 
colony.  The  Supreme  Government  appeared  as 
ignorant  of  the  intentions  of  the  Home  Govern- 
ment as  were  their  subordinates.  Indeed,  this  was 
inevitable  when  confusion  and  doubt  everywhere 
prevailed.  Raffles  himself  did  not  always  use  the 
same  language.  Thus,  in  February  1814,  he  writes 
of  the  island  being  given  up  at  a  peace  to  a  foreign 
power,  '  which  God  forbid,'  while,  in  the  following 
July,  he  says,  'If  I  were  to  believe  that  the 
Javanese  were  ever  again  to  be  ruled  on  the 
former    principles    of    government,   I   should    indeed 


124         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

quit  Java  with  a  heavy  heart ;  but  a  brighter 
prospect  is,  I  hope,  before  them.  Holland  is  not 
only  re-established,  but,  I  hope,  re-united.  ...  I 
will  hope  that  the  people  of  Java  will  be  as  happy, 
if  not  happier,  under  the  Dutch  than  under  the 
English.  I  say  happier,  because  Java  will,  in 
importance,  be  more  to  Holland  than  she  could 
ever  be  to  England  ;  and  the  attention  bestowed 
by  the  one  country  must  naturally  be  greater  than 
that  likely  to  be  afforded  by  the  other.'  After 
Napoleon's  return  from  Elba,  Raffles  was  for  a 
moment  filled  with  the  hope  that  after  all  Java 
might  remain  British.  Unhappily  personal  consider- 
ation soon  forbade  that  Raffles  should  be  an  unbiassed 
"judge  when  the  East  India  Company  was  concerned. 
His  old  friend  and  patron  Mr  Ramsay  retired  on  a 
pension  in  1813,  and  his  successor,  rightly  or 
wrongly,  was  believed  by  Raffles  to  *  possess  neither 
heart  nor  soul'  and  to  be  *  self-interested  in  every 
act.'  As  the  clouds  arising  from  Gillespie's  charges 
gathered  round  him,  Raffles  was  assailed  by  a 
fresh  misfortune.  Lord  Minto  died,  whom  Raff.es 
regarded  as  his  only  'shield  and  support.'  'It 
is  a  thousand  to  one  now,'  he  bitterly  adds,  '  that 
Lord  Moira's  party  carries  the  day  for  a  time.' 
Lord  Moira  is  described  in  the  same  letter  as 
'  disappointed  of  the  patronage  of  Java,  opposed  to 
all  Lord  Minto's  arrangements,  and  possessing  strong 
prejudices.'  In  May  1815  the  Court  of  Directors 
launched  the  final  thunderbolt  which  pronounced  a 
curt  dismissal.     Altogether,  apart  from  the   Gillespie 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  125 

accusations,  *we  cannot  but  lament  that  the  just 
and  accurate  views  of  political  and  commercial 
economy  which  have  served  to  detect  the  numerous 
errors  that  have  been  committed  by  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor  were  not  directed  to  the  prevention  of 
acts  which  have  rendered  the  occupation  of  Java 
a  source  of  financial  embarrassment  to  the  British 
Government.'  Smarting  under  unmerited  censure, 
Raffles  somewhat  naively  announced  himself  (August 
1815)  'so  disgusted  with  the  proceedings  of  the 
Supreme  Government  that  I  have  at  once  invited 
the  King's  Government  to  assume  the  administration 
of  Java.  ...  I  have  previously  stated  my  wish  to 
be  appointed  political  agent  on  the  part  of  the 
British  Government  for  the  Eastern  Seas.  ...  I 
think  I  would  manage  in  long  that  my  Empire 
—talcing  roots  in  Sumatra — shall  soon  extend  its 
branches  through  the  Eastern  Islands,  and  though 
secondary  in  the  commencement,  should  in  the 
end  become  supreme.' 

As  the  tone  of  the  above  may  sound  somewhat 
boastful,  it  is  but  fair  to  set  beside  it  the  words 
written  on  the  same  day  to  Lord  Buckinghamshire. 
Urging  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  retention 
of  Java,  he  adds  : — '  I  shall  stand  excused  from  the 
narrow  views  of  personal  interest  when  I  declare 
that  I  shall  have  no  inclination  to  accept,  were  it 
offered,  the  charge  of  such  an  adminstration  as  I 
shall  venture  to  propose.  It  will  require  a  person  of 
high  rank,  either  noble  or  military,  and  I  have  had 
too  much  experience  already    of  the    injuries    which 


126         BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

accrue  from  the  want  of  that  high  rank.  These 
injuries,  as  far  as  they  might  affect  private  comfort 
or  what  may  be  termed  the  state  of  domestic  mind, 
are  little  heeded,  for  I  feel  myself  superior  to 
them ;  but  the  public  interests  suflfer  when  exalted 
rank  does  not  accompany  exalted  station.'  Be  this 
as  it  may,  the  tone  adopted  by  Raffles  was  not  such 
as  to  win  the  sympathies  of  a  Secretary  of  State.  It 
showed  little  knowledge  of  the  official  mind  to  declare 
(letter  to  Lord  Buckinghamshire,  October  ii,  1815) 
that  it  was  'scarcely  possible  to  conceive  a  greater 
degree  of  injustice  than  what  I  have  received  at  the 
hands  of  the  Earl  of  Moira.'  The  truth  was,  as 
Raffles  himself  had  already  written  (letter  to  Ramsay, 
September  18 15)  :  'She'  (Java)  'cannot  longer  be 
kicked  about  from  one  place  and  authority  to  another 
like  a  shuttlecock.  The  Court  of  Directors  will 
not  interfere,  the  Ministers  will  not  interfere,  the 
Government  of  Bengal  will  not  now  interfere,  but 
all  hands  will  no  doubt  unite  if  there  is  anything 
with  which  to  find  fault.' 

Apart  from  his  private  grievances,  concern  for  the 
public  weel  was  troubling  him  sore,  '  I  cannot  get 
this  abominable  treaty  out  of  my  head.  All  our 
interests  in  this  part  of  the  world  are  sacrificed,  and 
it  is  not  the  first  time  our  honourable  masters  have 
sacrificed  the  national  interests  to  support  their  own 
jobbing  system.'  The  restoration  of  Java  to  the 
Dutch  may  be  justified  on  grounds  of  policy,  but  the 
manner  in  which  no  attempt  was  made  to  safeguard 
the  interests  of  the  native  rulers  who  had  trusted  to 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  127 

British  protection  reflected    disgrace    upon    England, 
and  led  to  much  subsequent  trouble. 

While  Raffles  was  thus  being  harassed  by  public 
cares,  a  more  intimate  grief  had  assailed  him.  In 
November  18 14  Mrs  Raffles  was  seized  with  a  sudden 
illness  and  died  within  a  very  short  time.  What  the 
widower  felt  is  best  seen  by  the  pathetic  words  written 
more  than  a  year  later  in  replying  to  the  address  pre- 
sented, on  his  leaving  Java,  by  the  members  of  his 
staff.  '  You  have  been  with  me  in  the  days  of 
happiness  and  joy,  in  the  hours  that  were  beguiled 
away  under  the  enchanting  spell  of  one,  of  whom  the 
recollection  awakens  feelings  which  I  cannot  suppress. 
You  have  supported  and  comforted  me  under  the 
affliction  of  her  loss.'  Great  as  was  his  grief,  there 
was  in  him  a  power  of  rebound  which  prevented  his 
dwelling  exclusively  upon  the  past.  He  well  de- 
scribed himself  (October  18,  1 81 5)  as  'a  widowed 
wretch  and  yet  not  cast  down  .  .  .  my  spirits  are 
uneven,  and  I  am  either  the  enthusiast  or  the  despon- 
dent.' In  the  preceding  March  he  ascended  the 
mountain  Gunung  Gidi,  *  which  I  accomplished  with 
some  difficulty.  .  .  .  We  had  a  most  extensive 
prospect  from  the  summit.  ...  I  think  we  may  say 
that  we  had  nearly  within  our  range  all  that  part  of 
the  island  which  by  the  former  Government  was 
not  called  Java.'  A  little  later  Raffles  undertook 
a  tour  to  the  eastward  through  the  interior  and 
mountainous  parts  of  the  island.  On  a  single  day  he 
travelled  fifty  miles  through  unknown  forest.  '  The 
path     was    frequently    undistineuishable,      In    some 


128       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

places  it  lay  over  steep  mountains,  and  in  others 
followed  the  courses  of  rivers,  or  wound  through  the 
mazes  of  deep  ravines.'  One  of  the  attendants  was 
nearly  torn  to  pieces  by  a  tiger.  The  scenery  was 
lovely,  and  the  journey  gave  Raffles  '  the  opportunity 
of  examining  in  person  those  stupendous  monumental 
remains  of  a  hierarchy,  long  since  obsolete,  which  are 
promiscuously  scattered  through  all  parts  of  the  island. 
They  consist  of  ruins  of  Hindu  temples  and  of 
images,  sculptures  and  inscriptions.  .  .  .  Many  of 
these  had  been  previously  surveyed  and  delineated, 
under  his  orders,  by  proper  officers  ;  but  his  personal 
examination  was  required  to  enable  him  to  determine 
the  accuracy  of  their  plans  and  delineations,  and  to  add 
those  practical  details  which  will  give  full  authenticity 
to  the  descriptions.  .  .  .  On  his  further  route  to  the 
Eastward  he  also  inspected  the  remains  of  Majapahit.' 
'Various  details,'  Dr  Horsfield  adds,  'on  particular 
ruins  were  likewise  communicated  to  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor  by  his  friends,  from  which  collectively  he 
has  been  enabled  to  give  in  the  9th  chapter  of  the 
History  ofjava  those  copious  details,  accompanied  by 
beautiful  illustrations,  which  add  a  peculiar  interest  to 
his  work,  enhanced  by  the  consideration  that  during 
the  short  period  of  the  British  possession  of  Java  these 
stupendous  remains  of  antiquity  .  .  .  were  either 
discovered  or  rescued  from  the  obscurity  in  which 
they  had  been  buried  for  many  centuries.'  At  the 
close  of  1 81 5  Raffles  was  again  summoned  to  the 
Eastward  by  the  discovery  of  a  conspiracy  among  the 
Sepoys  serving  at  the  Emperor's  Court,     The  rapidity 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  129 

and  vigour  of  Raffles's  action  rendered  the  movement 
abortive,  while,  in  the  special  circumstances  of  the 
case,  the  mildness  w^ith  which  he  treated  the  offenders 
was  doubtless  justified. 

Meanwhile  our  hero's  health  was  seriously  affected. 
'Anxiety,'  Raffles  wrote  towards  the  end  of  1815, 
'soon  pulls  a  man  down  in  a  hot  climate.'  According 
to  Lady  Raffles,  '  Mr  Raffles  was  occupied  constantly 
from  four  in  the  morning  until  eleven  or  twelve  at 
night.'  Not  only  did  he  work  for  long  hours,  but 
he  worked  with  extraordinary  rapidity.  He  frequently 
dictated  to  two  persons  whilst  engaged  in  writing 
letters  himself,  and  he  required  three  clerks  to  copy 
and  keep  up  with  what  he  wrote.  Considering  the 
original  delicacy  of  his  constitution  and  the  strain  to 
which  it  was  subjected  ;  considering,  moreover,  the 
debilitating  character  of  the  climate,  and  the  grief  and 
worry  which  came  on  the  top  of  work,  the  wonder  is 
not  that  Raffles  broke  down  but  that  he  showed  such 
rallying  powers.  It  does  not  speak  well  for  the 
generosity  of  his  enemies  in  Leadenhall  Street  that 
among  the  charges  carefully  treasured  against  him 
was  that  he  took  home  with  him  without  leave  the 
Government  medical  officer.  Sir  Thomas  Sevestre. 
The  state  of  the  Governor's  health  made  it  out  of  the 
question  that  he  should  proceed,  on  the  arrival  of  his 
successor,  Mr  Fendall,  direct  to  Bencoolcn,  and  so  he 
decided  to  visit  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and,  if 
necessary,  England,  before  entering  upon  his  new 
duties. 

Unjust  as  may  have  been  our  hero's  curt  dismissal, 
I 


130        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

it  involved  no  bad  consequences  to  British  interests. 
The  restoration  of  Java  had  been  decided  and  was 
irrevocable.  In  these  circumstances  it  v^^as  vv^ell  that 
the  business  of  formally  handing  over  the  Dutch 
possessions  should  be  entrusted  to  one  less  hostile  to 
Dutch  pretensions  than  v^^as  Raffles.  If  British 
interests  were  for  the  time  sacrificed  in  the  Eastern 
Archipelago  the  fault  lay  with  the  treaty  of  1814  and 
the  British  statesmen  who  had  signed  it ;  Mr  Fendall, 
in  a  very  difficult  position,  appears  to  have  done  all 
that  could  be  done  on  behalf  of  the  natives'  interests, 
and  endeavoured  ably  and  loyally  to  carry  through 
the  policy  of  Raffles. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

REVISITS    ENGLAND    AND    IS    '  LIONISED  '    (1816-I7) 

Voyage  Home — Interview  with  Napoleon — Life  in  London — 
History  of  Ja-va — Friendship  with  Duchess  of  Somerset — 
Second  Marriage — Tour  on  Continent — Returns  to  the  East. 

At  the  time  of  his  return  to  England  in  1816, 
Raffles  had  hardly  reached  to  middle  age.  And  yet 
in  many  respects  he  was  already  an  old  man.  He 
had  tried  a  delicate  constitution  to  an  extraordinary 
degree,  and  already  laid  the  seeds  of  premature 
death.  Successful  as  had  been  his  general  adminis- 
tration, he  had  freely  drunk  of  that  cup  of  disap- 
pointment and  disillusion  which  too  often  in  the 
past  was  wont  to  attend  the  officer  whose  business 
was  to  bear  *  the  insolence  of  office,  and  the  spurns 
that  patient,'  or  impatient,  '  merit  of  the  unworthy 
takes.'  Raffles  embarked  on  March  25,  18 16,  and 
reached  Falmouth  on  the  nth  of  July.  Rest  and 
change  of  climate  soon  restored  him  to  partial  health. 
'  Although  I  am  considerably  recovered,'  he  writes 
to  Ramsay,  ^  I  yet  remain  wretchedly  thin  and 
sallow,  with  a  jaundiced  eye  and  a  shapeless  leg. 
Yet,  I  thank  God,  my  spirit  is  high  and  untamed, 
and  the  meeting  of  friends  will,  I  hope,  soon  restore 
131 


132        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

me    to    my   usual   health.'     '  I   return  to  you,  how- 
ever,' he  adds,  'a  poor  solitary  wretch.' 

The  only  interesting  event  in  the  voyage  home 
had  been  the  landing  at  St  Helena,  and  an  inter- 
view with  Napoleon.  Leave  to  see  the  ex-Emperor 
was  with  difficulty  obtained,  and  Captain  Travers 
gives  a  vivid  description  of  the  feelings  of  the  party 
whilst  still  in  uncertainty  on  the  question.  At  our 
hero's  suggestion,  the  time  was  employed  in  each 
committing  to  paper  his  feelings  at  the  moment. 
The  verses  composed  by  Raffles  were  preserved  by 
Captain  Travers,  but  as  even  the  piety  of  Ladv 
Raffles  does  not  give  them  a  place  in  the  memoir, 
it  may  be  conjectured  that  the  gods  had  not  added 
the  gift  of  poetry  to  the  numerous  gifts  of  our  hero. 
More  interesting  is  Captain  Travers's  description  of 
the  interview.  '  On  our  approaching.  Napoleon  turned 
quickly  round  to  receive  us,  and  taking  off  his  hat 
put  it  under  his  arm.  His  reception  was  not  only 
not  dignified  nor  graceful,  but  absolutely  vulgar  and 
authoritative.  He  put  a  series  of  questions  to  Mr 
Raffles  in  such  quick  succession  as  to  render  it 
impossible  to  reply  to  one  before  another  was  put. 
His  first  request  was  to  have  Mr  Raffles's  name  pro- 
nounced distinctly.  He  then  asked  him  in  what 
country  he  was  born  ?  How  long  he  had  been  in 
India  ?  Whether  he  had  accompanied  the  expedi- 
tion against  the  island  of  Java  ?  Who  commanded  ? 
And,  on  being  told  Sir  Samuel  Auchmuty,  he  seemed 
to  recollect  his  name,  and  made  some  observations 
to    Las    Casas    respecting    him.      He    was    particular 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  133 

in  asking  the  extent  of  force,  and  the  regiments 
employed,  and  then  inquired  if  Raffles  delivered  up 
the  island  to  the  Dutch,  or  was  relieved  by  another 
Governor.  He  appeared  to  be  acquainted  with  the 
value  and  importance  of  the  island,  but  put  some 
strange  questions  to  Mr  Raffles,  such  as  how  the 
King  of  Java  conducted  himself.  On  Mr  Raffles 
explaining,  he  seemed  most  attentive,  and  then 
asked  whether  the  spice  plantations  at  Amboyna 
were  doing  well,  and  whether  the  Spice  Islands 
were  to  be  also  restored  to  the  Dutch.  He  then 
asked  the  name  of  the  ship  on  which  we  were 
going  home,  with  what  cargo  laden,  and  which  was 
best,  Bourbon  or  Java  coffee.  All  these  questions 
were  put  with  great  rapidity,  and  before  replied  to 
he  turned  round  to  Captain  Garnham  and  myself, 
asked  our  names,  and  what  service  we  had  seen  ; 
whether  we  were  ever  wounded  or  ever  taken 
prisoners ;  how  long  we  had  been  in  India,  and 
several  other  similar  questions.  He  then  again 
addressed  himself  to  Mr  Raffles,  and  seemed 
interested  with  his  remarks  on  Java.  He  conversed 
with  Sir  Thomas  Sevestre,  and  put  similar  ques- 
tions to  him  with  those  he  had  put  to  Garnham 
and  myself.  On  his  making  a  slight  inclination 
of  the  head,  we  prepared  to  take  our  leave,  and  on 
our  making  our  bow,  we  parted  .  .  .  Napoleon 
continued  his  walk,  and  we  returning  to  the  house. 
During  the  whole  time  of  our  interview,  as  Napoleon 
remained  uncovered,  common  politeness  obliged  us 
to  keep  our  hats  in  our  hands  ;  and  at  no  time  was 


134        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

it  found  necessary  to  give  him  any  title,  either  of 
General  or  Emperor.'  No  account  of  this  inter- 
view has  been  left  by  Raffles  himself,  but  the 
manner  in  which  in  later  letters  we  find  him  speak- 
ing of  Bencoolen  as  his  Elba,  shows  how  largely 
the  personality  of  the  great  Frenchman  bulked  in 
his  thoughts.  What  Napoleon  thought  of  Raffles 
it  would  have  been  interesting  to  know,  had  not 
the  canker  of  egotism  eaten  so  deeply  into  the  great 
Corsican's  nature  that  nothing  which  did  not  relate 
in  some  way  to  his  own  personal  fortunes  seems  in 
later  years  to  have  had  any  interest  for  him. 

When  England  at  last  was  reached,  '  the  day  was 
beautiful,  the  sun  shining  bright,  the  sea  smooth ' ; 
but  what  most  delighted  the  travellers  was  the 
greenness  of  the  fields.  A  brief  stay  at  Truro 
enabled  Raffles  to  go  down  a  copper  mine,  an  occa- 
sion on  which  he  foretold  the  eclipse  of  Cornish 
prosperity  by  the  competition  of  Oriental  tin  and 
copper.  He  reached  London  on  the  i6th  of  July 
i8i6,  'and  the  next  morning  he  announced  his 
arrival  at  the  East  India  House.  He  looked  with 
the  greatest  confidence  to  the  Court  of  Directors 
for  ample  justice  when  they  were  in  possession  of 
the  facts  of  his  case.  The  serenity  of  his  temper, 
the  buoyancy  of  his  spirit,  and  the  joyous  feeling 
of  returning  health,  absorbed  the  recollection  of 
past  misery  and  disappointment  in  bright  anticipa- 
tions of  future  reward  and  happiness.'  (Captain 
Travers). 

In  spite  of  anxiety   with  regard  to  his  treatment 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  135 

by    the    Directors,    and    the    private    troubles    under 
which    he    still    suffered,    there    can    be    no    question 
but    that    Raffles    keenly   enjoyed  the  life   to  which 
he    was    now    introduced.      We    have    seen    how    a 
nature,  singularly  susceptible  to  the  delights  of  life, 
had   been   from  earliest  boyhood   rigorously  confined 
to  the  cares  and  drudgery  of  business.     Raffles  threw 
himself  upon  the  society  which  opened  its  arms  to 
him    with    the    innocent   delight    of    a   hard-worked 
schoolboy  who  has  at  last  obtained  a  whole  holiday. 
Only  the  very  sophisticated   or    the   very   naive  can 
enjoy   the   position    of  a   lion  ;  and   Raffles,   in  spite 
of  his  experience,  was  naivete  itself.     It  is  suggestive, 
however,    of  the    temper    of  the    time    that    society 
did   not  welcome  primarily  in  Raffles    the  Governor 
of  Java,   the   intrepid   vindicator   of  a  new  India   in 
the  Far  East.     It    was  as   savant  that   he  seems   to  ^ 
have    been    mainly    considered,  and    it    was  through 
his  friends,  Sir  Joseph  Banks  and  Mr  Marsden,  that 
the   doors  of  the  Royal   Society  were   thrown    open 
to    him,    by   which    he    obtained    the    valued    friend- 
ship of  the    Duchess    and    Duke    of    Somerset,  and 
became    the    welcome    guest    of    Princess    Charlotte 
and  her  consort,  Prince  Leopold.     The  best  account 
of  this  time  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  reminiscences 
of  Sir   Stamford's  cousin,  the    Reverend  Dr  Raffles, 
from    which    Mr  Boulger  gives  some   very   interest- 
ing  extracts.     '  One   of  his    first    visits    was    to    his 
aunt,  for  they  were  very  fond  of  each   other.      He 
left   his   equipage,    which    was  a   splendid    one — and 
private    carriages    with    rich    liveries    were    not    so 


136       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

common  then  as  they  are  now,  and  were  indeed  a 
great  rarity  in  the  quiet  corner  of  London  in 
which  my  father  lived  —  and  walking  the  length 
of  Princes  Street,  knocked  at  old  No.  14,  and  on  the 
opening  of  the  door,  went  at  once  into  the  sort  of 
parlour-kitchen  where  my  mother  was,  busied,  as 
usual,  about  her  household  affairs.  "  I  knew  well," 
he  said,  "where  at  this  time  of  the  day  I  should 
find  you,"  and  taking  his  accustomed  seat  in  an  old 
armed  chair  by  the  fireside,  where  he  had  often  sat, 
made  her,  at  once,  by  his  affectionate  and  playful 
manner,  quite  unconscious  of  the  elevation  to  which 
he  had  attained  since  he  had  last  sat  there.  "  Aunt," 
he  said,  "you  know  I  used  to  tell  you,  when  I  was  a 
boy,  that  I  should  be  a  duke  before  I  die."  "Ah," 
she  replied,  "and  I  used  to  say  that  it  would  be  Duke 
of  Puddle  Dock^''  which  was  a  proverb  in  London 
at  that  day  referring  to  a  wretched  locality  in  Wap- 
ping,  and  with  which  aspiring  lads,  who  had  great 
notions  of  the  greatness  they  should  hereafter  attain, 
were  twitted.  But  he  had  actually  attained  to  far 
more  than  a  dukedom,  having  had  Oriental  kings 
and  regents  under  him.'  In  May  181 7  appeared 
the  History  of  Java^  '  which,'  Lady  Raffles  tells  us, 
'  he  completed  with  his  usual  quickness.  A  few 
sheets  were  rapidly  written  off  every  morning  for 
the  printer,  and  corrected  at  night  on  his  return 
from  his  dinner  engagements.  It  was  commenced 
in  the  month  of  October  18 16,  and  published  in 
May  18 1 7.'  C^est  magnifique^  the  critic  cannot  but 
whisper,  mats  ce  nest  pas  la  guerre.     The  History  of 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  137 

Java  is  interesting  as  containing  first-hand  informa- 
tion from  a  master  on  the  subject  and  on  scientific 
grounds,  but  from  a  mere  literary  standpoint  the 
less  said  of  the  book  the  better.  However,  it  satisfied 
the  judgment  of  that  great  authority,  the  Prince 
Regent.  On  Raffles  attending  the  next  levee,  we 
are  told  that  the  Regent,  while  cordially  recognising 
the  value  of  Raffles's  services  in  Java,  took  the  oppor- 
tunity of  thanking  him  '  for  the  entertainment  and 
information  he  had  derived  from  the  perusal  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  volumes.'  It  was  on  tiiis  occasion 
that  Raffles  received  the  honour  of  knighthood. 

Space  forbids  to  follow  the  good  Dr  Raffles  in 
his  account  of  the  manner  in  which  Oueen 
Charlotte  fished  for  a  present  of  Javanese  furniture, 
and  was  gratified  ;  of  the  jealousy  of  the  Regent 
of  the  friendship  shown  to  his  daughter.  '  Hence 
the  mere  knighthood^  when  all  expected,  as  ...  it  was 
richly  deserved,  a  baronetage '  ,•  of  the  adroit  manner 
in  which  Sir  Stamford  avoided  a  command  of  the 
Regent  by  putting  forward  a  prior  command  of 
the  Princess  Charlotte.  There  is  one  statement, 
however,  of  Dr  Raffles,  which  calls  for  some 
comment.  'There  was  no  doubt  entertained  at 
the  time  that,  if  he  had  survived,  he  would  have 
been  Governor-General  of  India  ;  while  she  (Princess 
Charlotte)  would  have  been  but  too  much  delighted 
to  have  raised  him  to  the  peerage  in  that  capacity.' 
Now,  that  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  was,  in  intrinsic 
worth  and  ability,  head  and  shoulders  above  many 
a    governor-general    may    be    freely    admitted,    but 


138       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

that  under  the  complicated  system  of  government, 
which  then  prevailed,  he  would  have  been  a  possible 
man  for  the  post  appears  more  than  doubtful. 
The  East  India  Company  was  primarily  a  com- 
mercial company,  with  directors  owing  primarily 
commercial  obligations  to  their  shareholders.  To 
assist  and  guide  them  in  the  Imperial  responsi- 
bilities, which  had  little  by  little  grown  upon 
them,  there  was  the  Board  of  Control,  a  depart- 
ment of  the  British  Ministry,  the  President  of 
which  spoke  in  the  name  of  the  Secret  Committee, 
which  consisted  of  representatives  of  the  Company.^ 
Lastly,  there  was  the  Governor-General,  who, 
although  termed  the  supreme  government,  was  of 
course  responsible  to  both  the  Company  and  to 
the  Board  of  Control.  In  this  state  of  things 
the  position  of  the  Governor-General  was  at  best 
a  very  difficult  one.  It  was  absolutely  necessary 
that  he  should  be  a  man  of  commanding  social 
and  political  position,  if  he  was  to  hold  his  own 
with  his  masters  in  Leadenhall  Street  ;  and  even 
the  prestige  and  distinction  of  a  Wellesley  were 
not  strong  enough  in  the  long  run  to  resist.  But 
Raffles  was  possessed  of  neither  political  nor  social 
influence.  He  had  already  excited  jealousy  and 
prejudice  in  some  of  his  short-sighted  employers. 
Among  his  great  gifts  the  gift  of  managing  men, 
at    least   when    they    were    placed    above    him,    was 

'  See  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Vol.  III.  p.  3.  Lord  Fitzgerald  writes 
(January  iz,  1843)  : — -'Lord  Ellenborough  has  been  three  times  at  the 
India  Board.  He  knows  that  every  line  sent  by  the  Secret  Committee 
is  written  by  the  President  of  the  Board  of  Control.' 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  139 

not  always  apparent.  His  political  aspirations  were 
as  profoundly  distasteful  to  the  statesmen  of  the 
day  as  they  were  troublesome  to  lookers  for  im- 
mediate gains.  The  favour  of  the  Sovereign  would 
have  been  a  weak  reed  indeed  on  which  to  rest 
in  the  face  of  the  storm  of  opposition  which  such 
an  appointment  must  have  aroused.  After  a  study 
of  the  records,  in  which  the  old  rancour  seems 
to  give  new  life  to  the  mouldering  pages,  the 
conclusion  seems  so  inevitable  that,  were  it  not 
that  Mr  Boulgcr,  whose  great  knowledge  of  Indian 
matters  must  be  allowed  by  all,  appears  to  regard 
the  idea  with  approval,  it  would  have  seemed 
superfluous  to  labour  the  conclusions  here  put 
forward. 

Among  the  friendships  gained  by  Raffles  during 
this  period  of  comparative  leisure,  the  most  interest- 
ing in  its  results  was  that  with  the  Duchess  of 
Somerset.  The  very  interesting  correspondence 
between  Sir  Stamford  and  the  Duchess  throws  a 
flood  of  light,  if  one  may  use  an  expression  borrowed 
from  the  French,  on  his  most  intimate  self.  A 
mere  man  of  the  world  might  easily  mistake  the 
purport  of  these  letters  and  detect  a  kind  of  platonic 
philandering,  where  in  truth  nothing  of  the  sort 
was  really  meant.  To  silence  such  cavils  it  may 
be  enough  to  say  that  many  of  these  letters  were 
written  soon  after  Raffles  had  taken  to  himself  a 
second  wife  to  whom  he  was  genuinely  attached  ; 
that  Lady  Raffles  sincerely  partook  of  her  husband's 
feelings  towards   the   Duchess ;    and   that    the   Duke 


I40       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

of  Somerset  was  no  less  sincerely  attached  both  to 
Sir  Stamford  and  to  his  wife.  In  fact,  there  was  a 
sentimental  and  romantic  side  to  Raffles  which  is 
not  a  little  captivating  in  the  case  of  this  world- 
battered  man  of  action.  'I  am  absolutely  afraid,' 
we  find  him  writing  to  the  Duchess  of  Somerset, 
'  to  enter  upon  the  romantic,  as  I  could  easily  prove 
to  your  Grace  that  you  were  not  mistaken  in  sup- 
posing me  a  little  given  to  such  indulgences.  I 
have  great  difficulty  in  keeping  myself  steady,  and, 
if  I  were  once  to  trust  myself  afloat  in  such  a 
bewitching  world,  I  fear  that  I  should  never  again 
be  fitted  for  this  everyday  scene.' 

Sir  Stamford's  second  wife,  to  whom  he  was 
married  in  February  1817,  was  a  Miss  Hull,  who 
appears  to  have  been  a  friend  of  his  favourite  sister, 
Mary  Anne.  '  You  will,  I  doubt  not,'  Raffles  writes 
to  his  cousin  on  February  23rd,  'approve  of  the 
change  I  have  made  in  my  condition  in  again 
taking  to  myself  a  wife  ;  and,  when  I  apprise  you 
that  neither  rank,  fortune  nor  beauty  have  had 
weight  on  the  occasion,  I  think  I  may  fairly 
anticipate  your  approval  of  my  selection.  The 
lady,  whose  name  is  Sophia,  is  turned  of  thirty  ; 
she  is  devotedly  attached  to  me,  and  possesses  every 
qualification  of  the  heart  and  mind  calculated  to 
render  me  happy.  More  I  need  not  say.'  The 
announcement  is  not  too  happily  expressed,  a  little 
recalling  Touchstone's  introduction  of  Audrey  ; 
but  in  fact  no  married  life  could  have  been  happier 
than    that   of  Sir    Stamford    and    Lady    Raffles,    and 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  i+i 

most  loyally  did  he  return  the  love  and  devotion 
with  which  he  was  enshrined.  In  the  spring  of 
the  same  year  Sir  Stamford  travelled  for  six  weeks 
upon  the  Continent,  visiting  France,  Belgium, 
Switzerland,  Savoy  and  the  Rhine.  In  France  he 
noted  that  the  Bourbons  did  'not  appear  to  me 
to  have  advanced  a  single  step  beyond  that  of  a 
footing.  They  are  in  office,  and  that  is  all.'  In 
his  admiration  for  the  system  of  peasant  proprietors 
he  anticipated  the  verdict  of  later  economists.  '  For 
the  greatness  of  a  country  it  may  be  an  object 
that  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  produce  should 
be  brought  to  market  ;  and  those  who  are  for 
raising  a  nation  maintain  that  this  can  only  be 
effected  by  large  farms  and  the  outlay  of  capital. 
The  philanthropist,  however,  and  even  the  philo- 
sopher, will  hesitate  before  he  sacrifices  everything 
to  the  greatness  of  the  nation  ;  unless  its  happiness 
goes  hand  in  hand  with  its  greatness,  he  will  think 
the  latter  but  of  little  value.  Now,  when  I  see 
every  man  cultivating  his  own  field,  I  cannot  but 
think  him  happier  far  than  when  he  is  cultivating 
the  field  of  another.  Even  if  he  labours  more, 
that  labour  is  still  lighter  which  is  his  pride  and 
pleasure,  than  that  which  is  his  burden  and 
sorrow.  ...  I  like  to  sec  fruit  trees  growing 
among  the  corn,  because  it  not  only  affords  a 
refreshing  and  beautiful  scenery,  but  because  it 
reminds  me  of  those  patriarchal  times,  those  days 
of  simplicity  when  the  son  and  grandson,  and  even 
the    great-grandson,    honoured    the    trees    that    their 


142       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

forefathers  had  planted.  Upon  the  whole  I  cannot 
but  think  that,  notwithstanding  agriculture  as  a 
science  may  be  almost  unknown  in  France,  and 
that  France  as  a  nation  has  been  greatly  im- 
poverished both  in  men  and  money,  there  is  a 
foundation  in  the  present  state  of  her  land  and 
peasantry  to  support  a  much  greater  nation  than 
France  ever  yet  was ;  all  now  depends  upon  the 
wisdom  of  their  Government  and  the  fortunes  of 
her  politics.' 

The  tour  fitly  concluded  with  a  visit  to  the  King 
of  the  Netherlands,  with  whom  Sir  Stamford  dined. 
'  They  were  very  communicative  regarding  their 
Eastern  Colonies  ;  but  I  regret  to  say  that  notwith- 
standing the  King  himself  and  his  leading  ministers 
seem  to  mean  well,  they  have  too  great  a  hankering 
after  profit,  and  immediate  profit,  for  any  liberal  system 
to  thrive  under  them.  They  seem  to  be  miserably 
poor,  and  the  new  Government  in  Java  have  com- 
menced by  the  issue  of  a  paper  currency  from  every 
bureau  throughout  the  island  ;  formerly  you  will  re- 
collect that  paper  money  was  confined  to  Batavia, 
it  is  now  made  general,  and  will,  I  fear,  soon  cause 
all  the  remaining  silver  to  disappear.  The  King 
complained  of  the  coff^ee  culture  having  been 
neglected,  and  expressed  anxiety  that  he  should  soon 
have  consignments  ;  and  while  he  admitted  all  the 
advantages  likely  to  arise  from  cultivation,  and 
assured  me  that  the  system  introduced  under  my 
administration  should  be  continued,  maintained  that 
it   was   essential   to  confine  the   trade,  and   to   make 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  143 

such  regulations  as  would  secure  it  and  its  profits 
exclusively  to  the  mother  country.  I  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  expressing  my  sentiments  to  him  very 
freely,  and,  as  he  took  them  in  good  part,  I  am  in 
hopes  that  they  may  have  had  some  weight.' 

It  has  been  already  seen  that  even  Lord  Hastings, 
in  his  hostile  Minute  of  October  17,  18 15,  considered 
himself  'bound  in  justice  to  leave  unshaken  the  re- 
served appointment  of  Mr  Raffles  to  the  situation  of 
Resident  at  Fort  Marlborough.'  The  subsequent 
decision  of  the  Court  of  Directors  finally  and  fully 
absolving  Raffles  from  any  stain  upon  his  moral 
character  rendered  it  no  longer  necessary  to  delay 
taking  up  the  duties  of  his  new  position.  The 
Court  of  Directors,  '  in  consideration  of  the  zeal 
and  talents  displayed  during  the  period  he  filled  the 
office  of  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Java,  conferred  upon 
him  the  title  of  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bencoolen 
as  a  peculiar  mark  of  the  favourable  sentiments  which 
the  Court  entertained  of  his  merits  and  services.'  At 
this  time  Raffles  had  several  private  conferences  with 
some  of  the  most  influential  of  the  Directors,  and 
appears  to  have  gathered  from  them  that  his  policy 
in  the  Far  East  would  be  allowed  to  prevail.  He 
was  instructed  to  communicate  directly  with  the 
Directors  with  regard  to  the  actions  of  the  Dutch, 
so  that  he  might  well  suppose  that  his  position  was 
something  more  than  that  of  a  mere  Resident  at 
a  commercial  station. 

'  The  delightful  misery  of  saying  good-bye '  cost 
Raffles    many   a    pang ;    especially    was    the    parting 


144        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

felt  from  his  kind  friend  the  Duchess  of  Somerset. 
To  her  care  were  entrusted  a  Javanese  cow  and  calf, 
for  whose  well-being  he  felt  the  keenest  solicitude. 
Starting  from  Portsmouth  in  October  1817,  the 
Lady  Raffles  was  driven  back  to  Falmouth  by 
contrary  winds.  Falmouth  they  found  'almost  at 
the  Land's  End,  and  so  far  removed  from  the  source 
of  general  information  that  we  are  quite  in  the  dark 
as  to  what  is  going  on  in  London.  The  newspapers 
are  two  and  even  three  days  old.'  Sir  Stamford  spent 
his  time  in  making  a  study  of  Cornish  tin  mines. 
At  Falmouth  Sir  Stamford  received  the  sad  news 
of  the  lamented  death  of  Princess  Charlotte.  At 
last,  on  November  19,  they  were  fairly  off.  'And 
now  I  must  say  good-bye  in  earnest,  for  the  wind 
is  decidedly  fair  and  promises  to  continue  so.'  Sir 
Stamford  adds,  '  The  large  dog  is  in  high  health 
and  spirits,  my  plants  and  particularly  the  Berry 
strawberries  quite  thriving,  and  also  my  little  birds 
singing  round  me.  .  .  .  To-morrow  I  mean  to  exert 
my  handy  work  at  butter-making  after  the  know- 
ledge I  obtained  at  Berry.'  Brave  words,  but  as  Sir 
Stamford  was  'never  well  on  shipboard,  and  would 
cheerfully  exchange  my  present  berth  for  an  upper 
apartment  in  the  King's  Bench,'  the  butter-making 
probably  did  not  come  to  much.  Lady  Raffles, 
however,  is  careful  to  note  that  'Sir  Stamford  never 
relaxed  his  occupations ;  he  regularly  devoted  his 
mornings  to  study  ;  and  only  allowed  a  small  portion 
of  the  day  to  be  occupied  in  the  idle  exercise  of 
walking    on    the    deck.'     '  A    beautiful   young    lady,' 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  145 

Raffles  writes  to  his  sister,  Mrs  Flint,  '  made  her 
appearance  while  we  were  in  the  southern  latitudes, 
but,  although  we  were  afterwards  six  weeks  at  sea, 
neither  child  or  mother  suffered  inconvenience.  Never 
was  such  a  pair  of  darlings.'  Considering  this  event, 
it  is  amusing  to  note  the  more  than  Roman  dignity 
with  which  Lady  Raffles  severely  ignores  this  gener- 
ally important  incident  of  family  life,  and  writes  : — 
'  The  passage  was  long  and  tedious — five  months 
without  any  object  to  vary  the  scene,  relieve  the 
eye,  or  divert  the  mind  from  the  contemplation  of 
what  has  been  called  the  one  great  monstrous  idea^ 
It  was  not  that  she  was  less  the  mother,  but  that 
she  was  more  the  wife — a  wife,  moreover,  whose 
unhappy  idea  of  writing  a  biography  was  to  insert 
masses  of  political  information,  which  could  easily 
be  obtained  elsewhere,  and  severely  to  ignore  all  those 
human  touches  which  alone  enable  the  dry  bones  of 
the  past  to  live  again. 

The  new  arrival,  at  the  suggestion  of  a  Javanese 
chief  who  had  accompanied  Raffles  to  England,  re- 
ceived the  name  of  the  Lily  of  the  Sea  (Tunjong 
Segara)  in  addition  to  the  names  Charlotte  Sophia. 


CHAPTER    IX 

BENCOOLEN     (1818-24) 

First  Impressions — Measures  of  Reform — Emancipating  Slaves — 
Policy  with  Regard  to  Natives — Promotes  Agriculture — Ap- 
proval of  Planters — Schools  for  Native  Children — Treatment 
of  Convicts. 

Sir  Stamford  arrived  at  Bencoolen  on  March  22, 
18 18.  The  place  had  been  just  devastated  by  an 
earthquake,  and  the  first  impressions  were  far  from 
favourable.  '  This  is,  without  exception,'  he  wrote 
to  Mr  Marsden,  '  the  most  wretched  place  I  ever 
beheld.  I  cannot  convey  to  you  an  adequate  idea 
of  the  state  of  ruin  and  dilapidation  which  surrounds 
me.  What  with  natural  impediments,  bad  govern- 
ment, and  the  awful  visitations  of  Providence  which 
we  have  recently  experienced  in  repeated  earth- 
quakes, we  have  scarcely  a  dwelling  in  which  to 
lay  our  heads,  or  wherewithal  to  satisfy  the  cravings 
of  Nature.  The  roads  are  impassable,  the  highways 
in  the  town  overrun  with  rank  grass,  the  Government 
House  a  den  of  ravenous  dogs  and  polecats.  The 
natives  say  that  Bencoolen  is  now  a  tana  rnati  (dead 
land).  In  truth,  I  never  could  have  conceived  any- 
thing half  so  bad.  We  will  try  and  make  it  better, 
146 


Jj 


V 


ADMINISTRATION. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  147 

and  if  I  am  well  supported  from  home  the  west  coast 
may  yet  be  turned  to  account.  You  must,  however, 
be  prepared  for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  country  people  from  the  forced  cultivation 
of  pepper,  the  discontinuance  of  the  gaming  and 
cock-fighting  farms,  and  a  thousand  other  practices 
equally  distasteful  and  repugnant  to  the  British  char- 
acter and  government.  A  complete  and  thorough 
reform  is  indispensable,  and  reductions  must  be  made 
throughout.' 

In  sober  truth,  the  state  of  things  Raffles  found 
about  him  was  such  as  might  cause  an  honest 
Englishman  to  blush.  The  condition  of  the  Govern- 
ment skives  was  most  deplorable.  '  The  women 
living  in  promiscuous  intercourse  with  the  public 
convicts  for  the  purpose  (as  I  was  informed  by  the 
superintendent)  of  "  keeping  up  the  breed,"  and  the 
children  living  in  a  state  of  nature,  vice  and 
wretchedness.'  Most  meet  and  right  was  it  that 
our  hero's  first  public  act  should  have  been  the 
emancipation  of  these  unfortunate  creatures.  Look 
where  he  might  the  picture  was  dark  enough.  The 
revenue,  such  as  it  was,  was  the  outcome  of  vice 
or  of  tyranny.  In  his  first  despatch  from  Sumatra 
(April  10,  1818),  Raffles  points  out  'the  withering 
effect  of  the  system  of  forced  deliveries.'  Perhaps 
nowhere  in  the  history  of  dependencies  had  the 
precept  '  how  not  to  do  it '  been  more  carefully 
followed  than  in  the  manao-ement  of  Bencoolen. 
Started  as  a  commercial  factory,  and  only  continued 
for    commercial    purposes,    this    precious  station    had 


14-8       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

entailed  upon  the  Company  an  annual  deficit  of 
nearly  ^100,000.  On  the  first  establishment  of 
settlements  in  Sumatra  the  East  India  Company 
bound  down  the  native  chiefs  to  compel  their 
subjects  each  to  cultivate  a  certain  number  of 
pepper  vines,  the  produce  to  be  delivered  to  the 
Company's  agents  at  a  price  below  the  cost  of  the 
labour  employed  in  the  cultivation.  With  the 
appearance,  however,  of  English  officials,  the  influence 
of  the  chiefs  naturally  waned,  and  the  agents  of  the 
Company  became  themselves  obliged  to  exact  the 
enforced  labour.  In  1801  a  new  departure  had  been 
made.  Wearied  with  the  continual  drains  on  their 
resources,  the  Court  of  Directors  ordered  a  large 
reduction  of  the  staff,  and  the  abandonment  of  the 
out-stations.  Unfortunately,  the  old  system  of 
enforced  labour  was  not  at  the  same  time  abolished, 
the  out-residences  being,  in  fact,  farmed  out  to  such 
as  undertook  to  furnish  from  them  the  largest  amount 
of  pepper  at  a  given  rate.  The  result  was  to  be  seen 
'  in  the  ruinous  effects  which  have  resulted  from  a 
disinclination  to  exercise  supremacy  for  the  moral 
improvement  of  the  people,  while  at  the  same  time 
its  attributes  were  abundantly  assumed  for  the  attain- 
ment of  a  pecuniary  profit.'  The  economies,  more- 
over, of  1 80 1  had  been  apparent  rather  than  real. 
In  order  that  the  Resident  might  have  an  interest 
in  forcing  the  people  to  cultivate  pepper,  he  was 
allowed  one  dollar  per  cent,  on  the  quantity  he 
delivered  to  Government.  Insufficient  allowances 
tended  to  produce  an  inefficient  and  dishonest  class  of 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  149 

civil  servants.  Raffles  found  the  resources  of  the 
place  greatly  diminished,  while  the  establishments 
*  were  actually  in  a  progressive  state  of  increase.' 
There  was  a  deficiency  of  over  $160,000  in  the 
Treasury,  which  the  sub-treasurer  did  not  attempt  to 
explain  till  he  was  safely  out  of  the  place.  That 
Raffles  should  have  evolved  order  out  of  this  chaos  is 
in  some  ways  more  to  his  credit  than  were  his  more 
brilliant  claims  to  general  recognition.  Writing  on 
June  29,  18 18,  he  was  able  to  announce  that  'all 
forced  services  and  forced  deliveries  of  every  denomi- 
nation have  been  abolished,  the  cultivation  of  pepper 
has  been  declared  free,  and  the  people  are  now  at 
liberty  to  cultivate  that  article  or  not  at  their  pleasure. 
All  transit  duties  have  been  abolished.'  The  revenue 
derived  from  the  cock-fighting  farms  was  employed 
locally,  so  that  their  continuance  being  '  destructive 
of  every  principle  of  good  government,  of  social  order, 
and  the  morals  of  the  people,'  they  were  promptly  put 
down.  The  gaming  farms  presented  a  greater  diffl- 
culty,  as  they  were  connected  with  the  revenues  of 
Bengal,  but  these  also  were  suppressed.  The  emanci- 
pation of  the  Company's  slaves  took  place  before  an 
assembly  of  the  native  chiefs,  to  whom  Sir  Stamford 
explained  the  views  of  the  British  Government  with 
regard  to  the  abolition  generally.  The  children  of 
the  slaves  were  at  the  same  time  assembled  at  the 
Government  House,  and  '  as  a  considerable  degree  of 
prejudice  existed  against  them,  Lady  Raffles  at  the 
moment  selected  one  of  them,  a  little  bright-eyed  girl 
about  eight  years,  whom  she  put  under  the  charge  of 


ISO       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

her  European  nurse.  She  proved  a  most  docile, 
affectionate  little  attendant,'  and  Lady  Raffles  'on 
leaving  Sumatra  had  the  pleasure  of  giving  her  a  dov^^er 
on  her  marriage.'  Care  w^as  at  the  same  time  taken 
to  consult  the  native  chiefs  w^ith  regard  to  the  future 
of  the  country.  All  former  treaties  were  by  consent 
annulled,  and  a  free  hand  thus  secured  for  the  intro- 
duction of  reforms.  For  very  shame  the  Court  of 
Directors  could  not  refuse  their  sanction  to  the 
measures  of  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  and  the 
abolition  of  the  gaming  farms.  They  expressed  their 
regret,  how^ever,  at  the  haste  with  which  Raffles  had 
acted. 

As  time  passed.  Raffles  became  more  and  more 
reconciled  to  his  new  position.  '  We  are,  upon  the 
whole,'  he  writes  in  July  1820,  'as  happy  a  family  as 
you  can  well  conceive  ...  so  comfortable  indeed 
have  we  managed  to  make  ourselves  that  we  shall  feel 
regret  whenever  the  day  comes  that  we  are  to  turn 
our  backs  on  Bencoolen,  whether  for  better  or  worse.' 
'  I  have  fortunately  become  very  popular  among  them ; 
all  classes  seem  persuaded  that  I  want  to  make  the 
country,  and  there  is  nothing  which  I  wish  or  suggest 
which  they  are  not  anxious  to  do.'  His  active  brain 
had  evolved  a  plan  whereby  to  reconcile  the  well-being 
of  the  people  with  the  withdrawal  of  European  estab- 
lishments from  the  several  out-stations.  In  order  to 
insure  to  the  cultivator  the  direct  fruits  of  his  industry, 
inquiry  was  made  into  the  nature  of  the  tenure  of 
land,  and  the  conclusion  reached  that  a  permanent 
interest   in    the  soil   was    not    inconsistent    with    the 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  151 

native  institutions  of  the  country.  The  Sumatrans, 
however,  were  a  very  different  people  from  the  Javanese. 
They  were  perhaps  a  thousand  years  behind  them  in 
civilisation,  and,  consequently,  required  a  very  different 
form  of  government.  '  In  Java  I  advocated  the 
doctrine  of  the  liberty  of  the  subject,  and  the  indi- 
vidual rights  of  man — here  I  am  advocating  despotism. 
At  present  the  people  are  as  wandering  in  their  habits 
as  the  birds  of  the  air,  and  until  they  are  congregated 
and  organised  under  something  like  authority,  nothing 
can  be  done  with  them.'  The  real  remedy,  according 
to  Raffles,  would  have  been  to  establish  a  benevolent 
despotism.  '  I  would  assume  supremacy  without 
interfering  with  the  just  independence  ;  I  would  be 
the  protector  of  the  native  states  ;  I  would,  in  fact, 
re-establish  the  ancient  authority  of  Menang  Cabau, 

and  be  the  o-reat  Mofful  of  the  island.     I  would  with- 
er o 

out  expense  afford  employment  to  twenty  or  thirty 
thousand  English  colonists.  In  short,  what  would  I 
not  do,  and,  indeed,  what  could  I  not  do  were  I  free 
to  act,  and  encouraged  rather  than  abused  ? '  All 
this  he  recognised  to  be  '  visionary.'  '  The  time  has 
gone  by  when  I  had  the  spirit  for  it.  I  have  met  with 
so  much  injustice  and  ill-usage  on  the  part  of  the 
authorities  at  home  that  the  charm  is  gone — my  con- 
fidence is  lost.  I  only  think  of  these  changes  as  what 
might  have  been  had  circumstances  been  more  favour- 
able.' Meanwhile,  as  a  second  best  measure.  Raffles 
endeavoured  to  strengthen  the  positions  of  the  native 
chiefs,  and  to  throw  upon  them  increased  responsibili- 
ties.    The  Government,  abandoning  the  advantage  of 


152       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

the  labour  of  the  villagers,  also  abandoned  any  obliga- 
tion of  police  protection.  The  land  being  vested  in 
the  chiefs,  they  were  held  responsible  for  public  order. 
Native  Courts  w^ere  to  be  held  by  these  chiefs,  com- 
munications w^ith  the  Government  being  carried  on 
through  the  channel  of  the  principal  men  among  them. 
As  Raffles  expressed  it,  '  I  have  assumed  a  new  char- 
acter— that  of  Lord  Paramount.  The  chiefs  are  my 
barons  bold,  and  the  people  their  vassals.' 

If,  however,  permanent  improvement  was  to  be 
obtained,  it  could  be  only  by  the  encouragement 
of  agriculture.  Forests  were  cleared,  morasses  drained, 
and  the  soil  cultivated.  Every  man  was  obliged  to 
grow  sufficient  grain  for  his  own  subsistence,  and 
the  produce  increased  by  leaps  and  bounds.  '  By 
establishing  a  right  of  property  in  the  soil  and 
giving  the  preference  to  the  actual  cultivator,  an 
extraordinary  competition  has  been  excited,  and  my 
time  is  now  engaged  for  many  hours  in  the  day 
in  settling  boundaries  and  claims  to  land,  which 
a  year  ago  may  be  said  to  have  been  without  owner 
or  claimant.'  Raffles  himself  had  turned  farmer. 
'  My  life  is  at  present  rather  monotonous,  not,  how- 
ever, unpleasantly  so,  for  I  have  all  the  regular 
and  substantial  enjoyment  of  domestic  comfort  in 
the  bosom  of  a  happy  and  thriving  family ;  and 
in  the  daily  pursuits  of  agricultural  and  magisterial 
duty  I  find  abundance  to  interest  and  amuse — but 
I  am  no  longer  striding  from  one  side  of  India  to 
another,  overleaping  mountains  or  forming  new 
countries — I   am  trying   to   do   the   best  I  can   with 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  153 

a  very  old  and  nearly  worn-out  one,  in  which  I 
hope,  by  infusing  a  new  spirit,  and  encouraging 
habits  of  industry  and  motives  of  enterprise,  much 
may  be  done.  I  am  busily  engaged  in  taking  a 
census  of  the  population,  and  inquiring  into  the 
processes  of  husbandry  and  the  village  institutions, 
and  I  think  you  would  be  amused  to  see  me  amid 
my  rude  and  untutored  mountaineers,  collecting  the 
details  and  entering  into  all  the  particulars,  as  if 
they  were  the  peasants  of  my  own  estate '  (June 
2,  1820).  In  spite  of  difficulties,  Bencoolen  was 
at  last  'thriving,  the  remedy  applied  has  been  efficient, 
a  turn  has  been  taken  and  a  few  years'  perseverance 
will  make  this  a  new  and  prosperous  country — 
great  it  can  never  be.'  At  the  same  time  much 
remained  to  be  done.  Raffles  was  confident  that 
a  great  opening  lay  in  Sumatra  for  the  cultivation 
and  manufacture  of  sugar.  '  I  find  that  a  sugar 
work  may  be  established  here  at  less  than  one-sixth 
of  the  expense  which  must  be  incurred  at  Jamaica  ; 
that  our  soil  is  superior,  our  climate  is  better,  and 
as  we  are  neither  troubled  with  hurricanes  or  yellow 
fever,  that  our  advantages  are  almost  beyond  com- 
parison greater.  A  gentleman  has  come  over  from 
Jamaica,  and  is  establishing  a  very  extensive  planta- 
tion. He  is  now  engaged  in  planting  the  cane, 
and  in  about  a  year  hence  he  will  commence  his 
sugar.  Watermills  have  been  applied  for  from 
Liverpool,  and,  if  the  undertaking  should  turn  out 
favourably — as  I  have  no  doubt  it  will — I  trust  it 
will    not    be   long    before    his   example    is    generally 


154        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

followed.  Coffee  and  other  tropical  productions 
may  of  course  be  cultivated  here  with  equal  advan- 
tages ;  and  considering  the  present  state  of  capital 
and  labour  in  England,  I  cannot  help  regretting 
that  the  public  attention  is  not  turned  to  the 
advantages  which  might  result  from  colonising-  this 
part  of  Sumatra.  ...  It  is  here  by  colonisation, 
by  European  talents  and  Chinese  labour  alone,  that 
the  resources  of  the  country  can  be  brought  forward. 
...  I  much  fear  the  expectations  of  advantageous 
colonisation  at  the  Cape  will  be  disappointed.  It  is 
sending  poverty  to  feed  on  poverty,  and  the  most 
that  can  be  expected  by  the  settlers,  after  a  life 
of  toil  and  misery,  is  bare  subsistence.  The  climate, 
it  is  true,  is  more  congenial  to  a  European  constitution, 
but  this  is  all.  The  climate  is  certainly  warm  and 
unfavourable  to  Europeans,  but  I  believe  that  I  may 
safely  affirm  that  it  is  the  most  pleasant  if  not  the 
most  healthy  within  the  tropics.  The  principle, 
however,  on  which  colonists  settle  here  must  be  very 
different  to  what  it  appears  to  be  at  the  Cape. 
Here  nothing  can  be  done  without  capital,  everything 
with  it.  Capitalists  in  England  must  either  send 
out  their  relatives,  or  lend  their  money  on  mortgage 
to  some  active  or  intelligent  partner.  Any  young 
man  of  steady  habits  and  common  sense,  whose  father 
cannot  obtain  employment  for  him  at  home,  but  who 
can  advance  him  from  four  to  five  thousand  pounds, 
may  thus  establish  himself  and  create  an  estate  of 
three  or  four  thousand  pounds  a  year  for  his  descend- 
ants.    These  principals  in  the  concern  would  require 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  155 

under-surveyors,  coopers,  distillers,  writers,  etc.,  and 
each  estate  would  give  employment  to  several  Europeans. 
The  Chinese  and  natives  would  be  the  manual 
labourers,  as  the  negroes  are  in  the  West  Indies.' 
On  the  wisdom  of  these  suggestions  the  experienced 
must  decide  ;  but  it  is  quite  plain  that  such  colonisa- 
tion would  have  done  nothing  to  meet  the  evil  with 
which  the  state-aided  emigration  to  Port  Elizabeth 
endeavoured,  however  feebly,  to  cope.  It  is  probable 
that  the  next  sentence  of  the  letter  affords  the  key 
to  Sir  Stamford's  main  interest  in  the  subject. 
'  Politically,  the  colonisation  of  that  part  of  Sumatra 
which  belongs  to  the  British  Government  would  be 
very  important,  as  it  would  enable  us  to  make  a 
stand  against  the  Dutch  encroachments.  They  are 
colonising  Java  very  fast ;  and,  notwithstanding  our 
power  on  the  continent  of  India,  they  might  easily 
overrun  and  occupy  to  our  exclusion  every  possession 
between  the  Strait  of  Sunda  and  China.'  To  return 
to  the  more  material  subject  of  sugar,  the  Company 
showed  little  interest  in  Raffles's  scheme  for  further 
development.  When  he  proposed  to  add,  to  the 
annual  consignment  of  pepper,  sugar  and  spices,  they 
replied,  '  You  make  no  distinction  between  goods 
bought  for  commercial  principles  of  profit  and  loss, 
and  speculations  undertaken  for  the  eventual  benefit 
of  the  settlement  on  territorial  and  public  con- 
siderations' (January  22,  1822).  In  excuse  for  the 
Directors,  it  may  reasonably  be  supposed  that  the 
probable  abandonment  of  the  settlement  may  have 
been  already  in  their  thoughts. 


156       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Sir  Stamford  endeavoured  in  every  v/zy  to  promote 
the  cultivation  of  spices.  He  w^armly  supported  the 
petition  of  the  planters  who  urged  the  removal  of 
the  duties  in  the  British  market  which  operated  in 
favour  of  the  Dutch,  and  entreated  that  the  bar 
might  be  removed  which  prevented  the  introduction 
of  British  capital  and  immigrants.  '  The  manifest 
and  declared  efforts  of  the  Netherland  authorities  in 
this  country  to  injure  and  destroy  by  every  means 
in  their  power  the  rival  produces  of  Bencoolen  are 
felt  in  so  many  shapes  and  directions  that  our  planters 
feel  themselves  under  the  necessity  of  applying  for  the 
protection  of  their  own  government.'  They  might 
as  well  have  applied  to  a  rock.  The  East  India  Com- 
pany were  not  to  be  persuaded.  Mens  Immota  manet 
lacrimce  vohuntur  inanes.  The  planters  at  least  were 
not  ungrateful.  A  committee  of  them  placed  on 
record  that  '  the  great  variety  of  beneficial  changes 
that  has  taken  place  since  the  commencement  of  your 
important  administration,  and  the  extraordinary  facility 
with  which  these  changes  have  been  effected  has 
excited  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  everyone,  and 
had  circumstances  permitted  them  to  have  been  re- 
ceived with  due  appreciation  by  the  higher  powers, 
there  is  no  doubt  they  would  have  led  to  results  in  the 
commercial  world  as  great  as  they  would  have  been 
unexpected.' 

The  great  truth  that  man  cannot  live  by  bread  alone 
was  ever  in  the  Governor's  thoughts.  He  strongly 
urged  the  building  of  a  new  church,  pointing  out 
the  inconvenience  and  inadequacy  of  size  of  the  old 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  157 

chapel.  Schools  on  the  Lancastrian  plan  were  opened 
for  the  children  of  the  natives.  A  Bible  Society  was 
started  and  missionaries  encouraged.  '  We  have 
already,'  Sir  Stamford  writes  to  his  cousin, '  one  young 
man  and  a  small  printing  press  ;  but  we  require  active 
zeal,  and  I  shall  find  enough  to  do  for  all  you  can  send 
out ;  but  let  them  make  haste — years  roll  on  very  fast. 
.  .  .  There  is  no  political  objection  whatever  to 
missionaries  in  this  part  of  the  East,  and  so  far  from 
obstructing,  they  may  be  expected  to  hasten  and  assist 
the  plans  which  are  already  in  operation.'  The 
natural  bent  of  Sir  Stamford's  mind  was  never  more 
clearly  seen  than  in  his  treatment  of  the  convict 
question.  Bencoolen  had  been  since  1797  a  penal 
settlement  to  which  convicts  were  transported  from 
Bengal.  In  one  of  his  first  letters  from  Sumatra,  Raffles 
proposed  to  offer  inducements  to  good  conduct  by 
arranging  the  prisoners  in  three  several  grades.  He 
suggested  that  the  first  class  should  be  allowed  to  give 
evidence  in  Court  and  to  settle  on  land  secured  to 
them  and  their  children.  The  second  class  should  be 
employed  on  ordinary  labour,  while  the  harder  kind  of 
labour  was  reserved  for  the  third  class  of  incorrigible 
character.  Raffles  was  able  to  bring  his  amended 
regulations  into  force  in  January  1824,  but,  unfortun- 
ately, on  the  handing  over  of  Bencoolen  to  the  Dutch 
in  the  following  year,  and  the  transference  of  the 
convicts  to  Penang,  the  vis  inertice  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales's  Island  Government  reverted  to  the  old  system 
which  Raffles  had  superseded. 


CHAPTER    X 

THE   POLITICAL  SIDE  OF  THE   BENCOOLEN  GOVERNMENT 

Extent  of  his  Jurisdiction — Dutch  Predominance — General  Policy 
— Protest,  August  1818 — Case  of  Palembang — Pulo  Nias — 
Lord  Hastings's  Minute. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  with  what  zeal  Raffles 
threw  himself  into  the  cause  of  the  internal  well- 
being  of  Bencoolen.  At  the  same  time  he  clearly 
recognised  that  Bencoolen  by  itself  could  never  count 
for  much.  Whatever  general  trade  or  convenience 
it  had  recently  enjoyed  had  been  due  to  the  tem- 
porary possession  of  Padang,  and  Raffles  was  deter- 
mined in  some  way  to  make  good  this  loss.  At 
first  he  recommended  the  taking  possession  of  two 
small  islands  off  the  coast  of  Acheen,  '  the  British 
not  having  one  inch  of  ground  to  stand  upon  be- 
tween the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  China,  nor  a 
single  friendly  port  at  which  they  can  water,  refresh 
or  obtain  information'  (April  12,  1818).  He  recog- 
nised the  importance  of  Simanka  Bay,  and  instructed 
Captain  Travers  to  visit  and  report  on  the  proposed 
boundary  between  the  British  and  the  Dutch  posses- 
sions. Whatever  may  have  been  the  rights  of  the 
case,  the  British  authorities  were  not  prepared  to 
quarrel  with  the  Dutch  about  Simanka  Bay,  and  the 
Supreme  Government  were  of  opinion  that  *  the  pro- 

158 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  159 

posed  establishment  at  Simanka  Bay  did  not  present 
advantages  to  compensate  for  the  inconvenience  of 
collision  with  the  Netherland  authorities.' 

Another    measure    considered    essential    by    Raffles 
led  to  more  unpleasant  consequences.     When  he  left 
England  he  had   been  'given   to   understand   that  at 
least  all   the   British  interests  in  Sumatra  were  com- 
mitted to  his  charge,  subject  to  the  general  control 
of  the  Supreme  Government.'     He  therefore  entered 
into  treaties  of  alliance  and  friendship  with  the  native 
rulers.      After  an   interesting    visit  to   Menangkabu, 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Malay  race,  which  will  be 
described  later,  finding  that  the  Dutch  influence  had 
never  extended  inland  beyond  the  mountains,  Raffles 
'  did   not   hesitate   to  enter   into  a  conditional   treaty 
of  friendship  and  alliance  with  the  Sultan  of  Menang- 
kabu,   as    the    Lord    Paramount   of    all    the    Malay 
countries,  subject,  of  course,  to  the  approval  of  Lord 
Hastings.'     In  so  acting,  Raffles    undoubtedly  broke 
the   letter   of  the  law.      A   statute    of   George   IIL' 
had    expressly    forbidden    the    making    of  treaties    by 
authorities   subordinate   to   the    Bengal    Government. 
Moreover,  Sir  Stamford  offended  the  atnour  propre  of 
Lord   Hastings,  and   thus   alienated   the  only  possible 
ally   against   the    pusillanimous    policy   of  the    Home 
Government.      There   can   be   little   doubt   but    that 
his  sanguine   nature  attached   too  serious  a  meaning 
to  encouraging  words  spoken  in  private  conversation. 
Because  he   had   been   invited   to  send   home   reports 
with  regard  to  the  doings  of  the  Dutch,  and  because 

'  33  Geo.  III.,  c.  52,  sec.  43. 


i6o       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

he  had  received  the  title  of  Lieutenant-Governor, 
he  considered  himself,  and,  indeed,  described  himself, 
as  *  representative  of  the  British  Government  in  the 
Eastern  Seas.'  By  this  absence  of  the  wisdom  of  the 
serpent,  Raffles  too  often  delivered  himself  into  the 
hands  of  his  enemies.  In  an  account  in  the  India 
Office  Records  of  his  protests  against  the  Dutch  pro- 
ceedings there  is  added  in  pencil,  'add  by  u^hat 
authority,  if  by  any,  Sir  S.  Raffles  assumes  the 
title  ;  if  by  none^  as  I  apprehend,  let  that  be  stated.' 
Apart,  hov^^ever,  from  errors  of  form,  the  evil 
against  which  Raffles  was  struggling  was  real 
enough.  'The  Dutch  are  worse,'  he  writes  in 
April  i8i8,  'than  I  even  expected.  .  .  .  They  do 
all  they  can  to  lower  and  degrade  the  British  by 
arresting  their  persons,  firing  into  their  ships.'  '  My 
arrival  here,'  he  adds,  '  I  understand,  created  the 
utmost  alarm.  .  .  .  They  say  I  am  a  Spirit  that 
will  never  allow  the  East  to  be  quiet,  and  that  this 
second  Elba  in  which  I  am  placed  is  not  half  secure 
enough.  If  the  Government  is  not  right  down  mad, 
ministers  and  the  East  India  Company  must  inter- 
fere. It  will  not  be  long,  I  think,  before  we  come 
to  close  quarters.  I  am  now  endeavouring  to  estab- 
lish a  position  in  the  Straits  of  Sunda.  If  I  succeed  in 
this  I  shall  soon  set  up  a  rival  port  to  Batavia  and 
make  them  come  down  to  my  own  terms.'  '  Not 
satisfied,'  Raffles  wrote  about  the  same  time,  '  with 
shutting  the  Eastern  ports  against  our  shipping  and 
prohibiting  the  natives  from  commercial  intercourse 
with  the  English,  they  have  despatched  commissioners 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  i6i 

to  every  port  in  the  Archipelago,  where  it  is  prob- 
able we  might  attempt  to  form  settlements,  or  where 
the  independence  of  the  native  chiefs  afFord  anything 
like  a  free  port  to  our  shipping.  Thus  not  only 
the  Lampong  Country  has  been  resumed,  but  also 
Pontiana  and  the  minor  ports  of  Borneo,  and  even 
Bali,  where  the  European  flag  was  never  before 
hoisted,  are  now  considered  by  them  subject  to  their 
authority,  and  measures  taken  for  their  subjugation. 
A  commission  also  long  since  sailed  from  Batavia  to 
Palembang  to  organise,  as  it  is  said,  all  that  part  of 
Sumatra  ;  and  every  native  prow  and  vessel  is  now 
required  to  hoist  a  Dutch  flag,  and  to  take  out  a 
Dutch  pass  from  Batavia  for  one  of  the  ports  thus 
placed  under  their  influence  ;  so  that  whatever  trade 
may  still  be  carried  on  by  the  English  with  the 
native  ports  of  the  Archipelago  must  already  be  in 
violation  of  the  Dutch  regulations,  and  at  the  risk 
of  seizure  by  their  cruisers,  who  have  not  hesitated 
to  fire  into  English  ships.  The  commanders  of  the 
country  ships  look  to  me  to  protect  their  interests, 
and  even  to  support  the  dignity  of  the  British  flag  ; 
and  it  is  to  be  hoped  some  immediate  notice  will  be 
taken  by  our  Government  of  these  proceedings.  .  ,  . 
The  native  chiefs  of  the  independent  ports  have 
looked  in  vain  for  the  protection  of  the  English. 
They  feel  themselves  deserted  by  us,  know  not  how 
to  act,  and  from  necessity  are  gradually  falling  under 
the  influence  of  our  rivals.  The  question  is  not  now 
whether  we  are  to  give  back  to  the  Dutch  the  pos- 
sessions   they    actually    possessed    in    1803,  according 

L 


i62       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

to  the  late  Convention,  but  whether  the  British 
Government  and  British  merchants  will  be  contented 
to  be  excluded  from  the  trade  altogether  in  the  same 
manner  as  they  were  before  the  last  century.  No- 
thing less  will  satisfy  the  Dutch  authorities,  who  are 
now  at  Batavia.  They  make  no  secret  of  it,  and 
openly  avow  the  exclusion  of  the  English,  except  in 
Batavia,  as  the  first  principle  of  their  policy.' 

Our  hero's  method  of  meeting  this  state  of  things 
would  have  been  to  insist  upon  a  strict  interpreta- 
tion of  the  terms  of  the  late  Treaty ;  to  restore 
matters  to  what  they  were  in  1803  ;  but  not  to 
yield  an  inch  beyond.  A  regular  and  accredited 
authority  was  necessary  to  declare  and  maintain 
the  British  rights,  whatever  they  were  ;  to  receive 
appeals,  and  to  exercise  such  wholesome  control 
as  might  be  conducive  to  the  preservation  of  the 
British  honour  and  character.  '  To  effect  the 
object  contemplated,  some  convenient  station  within 
the  Archipelago  is  necessary  .  .  .  and  unless  I 
succeed  in  obtaining  a  position  in  the  Straits  of 
Sunda,  we  have  no  alternative  but  to  fix  it  in  the 
most  advantageous  situation  we  can  find  within 
the  Archipelago ;  this  would  be  somewhere  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Bintang.  ...  At  the  present 
moment,  when  the  most  rigid  economy  is  demanded 
in  every  department  of  the  British  service,  I  should 
perhaps  hesitate  to  propose  this  measure  of  extend- 
ing our  positions  were  I  not  satisfied  that  it  was 
absolutely  necessary  ...  it  may  be  confined  to  a 
single   commercial    station,    at    which    a    controlling 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  163 

authoritv  and  two  or  three  assistants  would  perform, 
all  the  duties,  with  a  military  guard  just  sufficient 
to  protect  the  flag  and  the  property  of  individuals 
from  predatory  attacks.  The  line  of  stations  which 
I  contemplate,  should  the  view  I  have  taken  be 
adopted,  would  commence  from  Acheen,  and,  with 
the  single  break  of  Padang,  extend  down  the  west 
coast  of  Sumatra  to  the  Straits  of  Sunda,  influenc- 
ing the  whole  coast.  Another  station  at  Rhio  or 
its  vicinity  would  thus  form  the  connecting  link 
between  the  establishments  on  the  West  Coast 
and  Prince  of  Wales's  Island,  and  check  the  Dutch 
influence  in  extending  uninterruptedly  in  a  chain 
from  Batavia  to  Banca,  as  certainly  it  will  soon  do 
without  such  an  establishment  on  our  part.  .  .  . 
In  establishing  these  stations  it  will  be  advisable 
to  proceed  with  great  caution,  and  gradually.  The 
footing,  however,  once  obtained  in  the  Straits  of 
Sunda,  1  apprehend  all  the  rest  will  follow  without 
difficulty.  In  the  defence  of  our  positions,  as  well 
as  for  the  maintenance  of  our  respectability  and 
influence,  I  am  of  opinion  we  should  look  more 
to  a  naval  than  a  military  force.  One  or  two  of 
the  Company's  cruisers  regularly  relieved,  and  the 
occasional  visit  of  His  Majesty's  ships,  will  answer 
every  purpose,  and  be  far  more  consistent  with 
our  commercial  and  political  character,  as  well  as 
afford  more  real  security  than  battalions  of  soldiers.' 
Meanwhile  Raffles  by  himself  was  powerless  to 
act,  but  what  was  possible  he  did.  Upon  August 
15,     i8j8>     he     issued    a    solemn    protest     against 


164       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

the  whole  proceedings  of  the  Dutch.  The  par- 
ticular case  of  Palembang  was  chosen  as  the  text 
upon  which  to  base  an  indignant  attack  upon  the 
Batavian  Government.  Upon  the  wisdom  of  this 
step  there  may  be  different  opinions.  Some  will 
think  that  unless  Raffles  was  sure  of  his  own 
Government  backing  him  up,  there  was  some  want 
of  dignity  in  indulging  in  scolding  words  when 
deeds  might  not  promptly  follow.  In  any  case 
the  protest  would  have  been  more  effective  had 
it  not  been  so  inordinately  long.  Raffles's  mean- 
ing by  this  action  is  clearly  explained  in  his  private 
correspondence.  He  wished  to  force  the  hands  of 
the  home  authorities  *to  bring  the  different 
questions  at  issue  to  a  point '  and  to  '  oblige  our 
ministers  to  come  to  some  immediate  understand- 
ing with  the  Dutch  authorities  in  Holland.'  '  I 
was  perfectly  aware,'  Raffles  wrote,  in  the  following 
year  to  the  Duchess  of  Somerset,  '  that  they  (the 
ministry)  would  not  like  the  agitation  of  the 
question,  but  they  ought  to  have  been  aware  that 
it  could  not  be  avoided,  and  that,  however  easy 
it  may  be  in  the  Cabinet  to  sacrifice  the  best 
interests  of  the  nation,  there  are  spirits  and  voices 
engendered  by  the  principles  of  our  Constitution 
that  will  not  remain  quiet  under  it.'  The  disgust 
of  the  home  authorities  at  the  bold  move  of 
Raffles  can  easily  be  imagined.  Never,  perhaps, 
was  the  spirit  of  the  little  Englander  more  power- 
ful than  in  the  counsels  of  the  Tory  ministry, 
which,  with  an   exhausted    Treasury  and    a    discon- 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  165 

tented  people,  saw  itself  confronted  with  the 
mauvais  quart  d'heure  of  Rabelais.  Raffles  found 
a  loyal  parliamentary  friend  in  Lord  Lansdowne, 
but  even  natural  soreness  cannot  excuse  the  singu- 
larly ungenerous  manner  in  which  Lord  Bathurst 
alluded  to  the  past  charges  against  Sir  Stamford 
when  asserting  that  he  possessed  no  political  authority 
whatever.^  As  Raffles  bitterly  wrote,  '  Ministers 
must  be  very  hard  pushed  or  made  of  strange 
materials  when  they  can  screen  themselves  under 
misrepresentation  and  falsehood.' 

'  In  fact,  as  has  not  seldom  been  the  case  in 
"England's  island  story,"  the  cause  of  British  interests 
was  closely  connected  with  the  cause  of  humanity  at 
large.  The  considerations  which  urged  Raffles  on  in 
the  case  of  Palembang  were  moral  considerations. 
It  was  the  blot  on  the  British  escutcheon,  inflicted  by 
the  violence  done  to  the  Sultan,  who  had  trusted  to 
the  continuance  of  British  protection,  which  made 
R.affles  to  blush.  The  facts  were  these  :  the  Dutch 
had  possessed  a  factory  at  Palembang,  and  the  Sultan 
was  so  far  their  subject  that  the  proceeds  of  the  port 
duties  went  to  them.  They  had,  however,  exercised 
no  control  over  the  islands  of  Banca  or  Billiton.  The 
English  had  made  a  treaty  with  the  Sultan,  under 
which    he    had   ceded    the    possession    of   Banca    and 

'  February  i,  1819,  Lord  Bathurst  stated  that  at  Sir  Stamford's  own 
request  he  had  been  allowed  to  have  the  title  of  Lieutenant-Governor 
that  he  might  not  'be  placed  in  a  disagreeable  situation,  as  it  might 
appear  to  many  that  the  charges  against  him  had  been  thought  well- 
founded  .  .  .  but  he  was  expressly  instructed  to  consider  himself  in  fact 
as  merely  the  commercial  Resident,  and  having  no  political  authority 
whatever.' 


1 66       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Billiton  in  return  for  the  recognition  of  his  independ- 
ency at  Palembang,  and  of  the  restoration  of  the  port 
duties.       By    the    Treaty    of    1814    between    Great 
Britain    and    the    Netherlands,    the    Dutch    received 
back    all    the    possessions    which    they    held    on    ist 
January  1803  ;  while,  under  a  separate  clause,  Banca 
was    ceded    to  them,   in   return   for   Cochin    and    its 
dependencies  on  the   Malabar   Coast.      In  this   state 
of  things   it   was   maintained   that    Palembang   could 
only  be  restored  to  the  Dutch  subject  to  the  British 
Treaty    with    the    Sultan.       Mr    Fendall,    the    new 
Governor    of  Java,   when    handing   over   the    Dutch 
possessions,  at  first   refused   to   recognise   Palembang 
as   Dutch,   but  finally  consented   under   protest,   the 
subject  at    issue    being    forwarded    to    the    European 
authorities  for  final  decision.     At  the  same  time  there 
appears  to  have  been  a  half  promise,  on  the  part  of 
the  Dutch,  that  they  would  not  seek  to  enforce  what 
they  claimed  as  their  full  legal  rights.     However  this 
may  have  been,  the  action  of  the  Dutch  was,  in  fact, 
far  from  conciliatory.     On  the  strict  letter  of  the  law 
there  seems  little  doubt  of  the  correctness  of  the  Dutch 
contention.      The   fault  lay   with   the   British   pleni- 
potentiaries in  Europe.     It  could  hardly  be  expected 
that  the  exalted  personages^  who,  whenever  the  oppor- 
tunity arose,  sacrificed  cheerfully  the  future  interests 
of  their  own  colonies,  should  be  mindful  of  the  moral 
claims   of  a   mere  native.     At   the  same  time,  these 
moral  claims  were  very  strong.     At  Great  Britain's 
desire  the  Sultan  of  Palembang  had  deprived  himself 
of  the  rich   tin   mines  of   Banca,  and   now    he  was 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  167 

bidden  once  again  to  lose  the  port  duties,  while  the 
means  by  which  it  had  been  possible  to  find  the 
money  for  the  purposes  of  government  were  not 
restored  to  him.  In  his  distress,  the  Sultan  appealed 
to  his  old  friend  and  ally,  Sir  Stamford  Raffles. 
Raffles  did  not  hesitate  to  interfere.  He  at  once 
despatched  Captain  Salmond  with  full  authority  to 
defend  in  every  way  possible  the  Sultan's  interests. 
Unfortunately,  beati  possidentes^  the  Dutch  were 
already  in  possession  with  a  strong  force,  and  their 
only  answer  was  to  clap  in  prison  the  British  emissary, 
and  finally  to  embark  him  on  board  ship.  The  wrath 
of  Sir  Stamford  may  be  imagined.  To  make  matters 
worse,  the  Dutch  Commissioner  was  the  same  Mr 
Muntinghe  whom  in  Java  he  had  found  so  obliging 
and  deferential  a  subordinate. 

So,  too,  in  the  case  of  Pulo  Nias,  it  was  moral 
considerations  which  dictated  the  action  promptly 
repudiated  by  Raffles's  superiors.  The  English 
Resident  at  Tapanuli  and  Natal  had  always  main- 
tained a  small  establishment  in  Pulo  Nias,  and  so 
Raffles  had  no  hesitation  in  accepting  the  sovereignty 
of  the  island,  when  the  chiefs  of  their  own  accord 
proffered  it.  The  population  appeared  to  be  at  least 
230,000  souls.  '  The  whole  island  is  a  sheet  of  the 
richest  cultivation  that  can  be  imagined,  and  the  in- 
terior surpasses  in  beauty  and  fertility  the  richest  parts 
of  continental  India,  if  not  of  Java.  The  people,  and 
in  particular  the  chiefs,  are  active  and  intelligent,  rich 
and  pov/erful.  .  .  .  They  have  cheerfully  entered  into 
our  views  for  abolishing  the  slave  trade,  and  the  people, 


i68       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

and  the  country  in  general,  promise  much.'  Pulo 
Nias  had  been  the  headquarters  of  an  active  slave 
trade.  *  The  unhappy  victims,  torn  by  violence  from 
their  friends  and  country,  are  delivered,  pinioned  hand 
and  foot,  to  the  dealers  in  human  flesh,  and  kept 
bound  during  the  whole  course  of  the  voyage.  In- 
stances have  occurred  w^hen  the  captives  have  seized 
a  moment  of  liberty  to  snatch  up  the  first  w^eapon 
v^^ithin  their  reach,  stab  all  whom  they  encountered, 
and  conclude  the  scene  by  leaping  overboard  and 
seeking  deliverance  from  their  persecutors  in  a  watery 
grave  ! '  The  population  were  pagans,  and  might  be 
converted  to  Christianity  before  they  had  come  under 
the  influence  of  Mahommedanism.  In  these  circum- 
stances, when  it  is  further  remembered  that  Pulo  Nias 
had  been  the  principal  resort  of  French  cruisers  during 
the  late  war,  and  that  its  acquisition  was  necessary  to 
complete  the  command  of  the  coast  from  Acheen  to 
Natal,  Sir  Stamford's  course  of  action  was  plain 
enough.  The  policy  he  advocated  would  have  en- 
tailed little  additional  expense,  and  would  undoubtedly 
have  been  a  gain  to  humanity.  The  Court  of  Direc- 
tors, however,  '  had  no  hesitation  in  declaring  that  his 
proceedings  in  regard  to  Pulo  Nias  were  deserving  of 
their  decided  reprehension  .  .  .  they  were  inclined  to 
visit  him  with  some  severe  mark  of  their  displeasure 
for  the  steps  he  had  taken,'  and  threatened  to  remove 
him  from  his  government. 

Although,  during  the  first  months  of  his  stay  at 
Bencoolen,  Raffles  may  well  have  felt  in  the  lonely 
position  of  an  Jthanasius  contra  munduniy  the  evidence 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  169 

of  his  senses  soon  carried  conviction  to  the  one  person- 
age with  whom,  to  a  great  extent,  lay  the  decision 
of  events.  It  has  been  seen  that  Lord  Hastings's  class 
and  professional  prejudices  had  been  at  first  aroused 
against  Raffles,  and  that  he  had  not  treated  him,  at 
the  time  of  Gillespie's  charges,  with  much  magna- 
nimity. At  the  same  time,  further  knowledge  no 
doubt  generated  increased  esteem,  and  Lord  Hastings 
at  least  was  not  influenced  by  the  pecuniary  considera- 
tions which  coloured  the  views  of  Leadenhall  Street. 
In  a  Minute,  dated  October  25,  1818,  written  after 
personal  communication  with  Sir  Stamford,  Lord 
Hastings  deliberately  placed  on  record  that  the  object 
of  the  Dutch  was  to  extinguish  our  political  influence 
and  to  exclude  our  commerce  in  the  Eastern  Islands. 
The  Dutch  authorities,  by  possessing  the  two  great 
passes  of  communication  with  China,  viz.,  the  Straits 
of  Sunda  and  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  held  at  their 
mercy  not  only  British  trade  with  the  Eastern  Islands, 
but  also  British  commerce  with  China.  These 
authorities  were  no  longer  the  agents  of  a  bankrupt 
company,  but  the  representatives  of  a  nation  rising 
rapidly  into  importance. 

In  this  state  of  things.  Lord  Hastings  recommended 
the  establishment  of  British  influence  at  Acheen,  the 
occupation  of  Rhio,  the  exchange  of  Bencoolen  for 
Malacca,  and,  lastly,  the  purchase  of  Banca  from  the 
Dutch. 

So  far  as  Raffles  was  concerned,  Lord  Hastings 
made  the  amende  honorable  in  a  letter  wherein  he 
wrote  : — '  It  was  painful  to  me  that  I  had,  in  the  course 


I70      BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

of  my  public  duty,  to  express  an  opinion  unfavourable 
to  certain  of  your  measures  in  Java.  The  disapproba- 
tion, as  you  vv^ill  perceive,  affected  their  prudence 
alone  ;  on  the  other  hand,  no  person  can  have  felt 
more  strongly  than  I  did  your  anxious  and  unwearied 
exertions  for  ameliorating  the  condition  of  the  native 
inhabitants  under  your  sway.  This  proceeding  was 
no  less  recommended  by  wisdom  than  by  benevolence  ; 
and  the  results  have  been  highly  creditable  to  the 
British  Government.'  Lord  Hastings  continued  :  '  I 
request  you  to  consider  yourself  at  liberty  to  carry 
into  execution  your  wish  to  visit  Bengal,  whensoever 
your  convenience  and  the  state  of  affairs  in  the  Island 
may  offer  an  eligible  opportunity.  The  means  of 
rendering  the  settlement  at  Bencoolen  more  advan- 
tageous to  the  Honourable  Company  than  it  now 
appears  to  be  are  certainly  more  likely  to  be  struck 
out  in  oral  discussion.'  The  opportunity  had  at  last 
arrived,  and  the  result  of  this  visit  was  the  foundation 
of  the  settlement  whereby  the  road  to  the  Far  East 
was  preserved  for  British  enterprise,  and  an  effective 
blow  struck  at  the  Dutch  predominance. 


CHAPTER    XI 

THE    ACQUISITION    OF    SINGAPORE    (1819) 

Visits  Calcutta — Instructions  for  Mission  to  Eastward — Revised 
Instructions  as  to  Johor — Arrives  at  Penang — Colonel  Banner- 
man — Singapore — Starts  for  Penang — Surveys  Carimon  Islands 
— Lands  at  Singapore — Treaty  with  Authorities — Appoints 
Major  Farquhar  Resident — Indignation  of  Dutch — Conduct  of 
Bannerman — Decision  of  Supreme  Government — Disapproval 
of  Home  Authorities — Postponement  of  Decision  saves  Singa- 
pore— Raffles  on  His  Acquisition — Mission  to  Acheen. 

Sir  Stamford  arrived  at  Calcutta  early  in  October 
1 818.  He  had  every  reason  to  be  satisfied  with  his 
reception  by  Lord  Hastings.  'I  have  just  returned 
from  spending  a  week  with  Lord  Hastings,'  he 
writes  on  November  15,  'and  am  in  high  favour.' 
At  the  same  time  the  pomp  and  ceremony  of  the 
viceregal  court  did  not  please  him,  and  he  adds  that 
his  opinion  of  Lord  Hastings  '  is  not  the  least  altered 
by  communion.'  So  far  as  his  general  views  with 
regard  to  the  Eastern  Islands  were  concerned, 
Raffles  was  unable  to  carry  the  Supreme  Government 
with  him.  Lord  Hastings  doubtless  knew  that, 
apart  from  provoking  the  Dutch,  such  a  policy 
would  never  obtain  the  support  of  the  home  authori- 
ties. It  was,  however,  determined  to  keep  the  com- 
mand of  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  by  forming  establish- 
ments at  Acheen  and  Rhio,  and  Raffles  was  appointed 
Agent  to  the  Governor-General  for  the  fulfilment  of 

171 


172       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

these  undertakings.  'The  protection  of  our  com- 
merce,' and  not  '  territorial  influence,'  was  the  object 
of  the  mission.  Raffles  was  enjoined  first  to  proceed 
to  Acheen,  and  then,  after  the  conclusion  of  the 
negotiations  there,  to  carry  out  the  second  object 
of  his  mission.  The  first  instructions,  dated 
November  28,  laid  great  store  upon  the  value  of 
Rhio.  The  object  of  the  mission  being  to  secure 
the  free  passage  of  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  the  port 
of  Rhio  was  considered  most  suitable  as  securing  the 
'  command  of  the  southern  entrance  of  these  seas.' 
(In  fact  Rhio  lies  twenty-five  miles  distant  from  the 
track  of  shipping  passing  in  and  out  of  the  Straits,  and 
its  harbour,  if  capacious,  is  mostly  shallow.)  By  these 
instructions  the  authority  of  Raffles  was  limited  to  the 
establishment  of  a  port  at  Rhio,  and,  if  necessary,  at 
Lingen  in  connection  with  the  former.  It  was  pre- 
sumed that  the  Dutch  had  not  already  formed  any 
settlement  at  Rhio.  'In  the  event  of  their  having 
done  so  at  the  period  of  your  arrival  you  will  of  course 
abstain  from  all  negotiation  and  collision.' 

The  probability  of  the  Dutch  forestalling  him  had 
been  much  in  our  hero's  mind.  He  writes  to  Mr 
Marsden  : — '  The  Dutch  may  be  beforehand  with  us 
at  Rhio.  They  took  possession  of  Pontiana  and 
Malacca  in  July  and  August  last ;  and  have  been 
bad  politicians  if  they  have  so  long  left  Rhio  open 
to  us.'  It  was  fortunate  that  Raffles  was  thus  per- 
sistent, as,  by  a  curious  irony,  on  the  very  day  on 
which  his  instructions  were  signed,  a  treaty  was 
secured  by  the  Dutch  from  the  helpless  ruler  of  Rhio, 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  173 

under  which  they  obtained  political  predominance. 
In  the  face  of  this,  the  commercial  treaty  obtained 
by  Major  Farquhar  at  an  earlier  date  became  so 
much  waste  paper.  Meanwhile,  doubtless  at  the 
suggestion  of  Raffles,  his  powers  had  been  enlarged, 
and  the  additional  instructions  of  December  5  gave 
him  the  same  discretion  in  establishing  a  connection 
with  the  Sultan  of  Johor  as  had  been  already  given 
with  regard  to  Rhio  and  Lingen.  Johor,  however, 
was  for  the  most  part  an  unknown  quantity,  so  that 
great  caution  and  circumspection  were  necessary  on 
the  part  of  Raffles.  Preliminary  inquiry  would  be 
necessary  both  with  regard  to  the  local  capacities 
of  Johor  for  a  British  port,  and  also  with  regard  to 
'  the  actual  political  conditions  and  relations  of  the 
state,  the  degree  of  independent  authority  exercised 
by  the  chief,  his  power  of  maintaining  any  engage- 
ments which  he  may  contract,  his  relations  with 
other  states,  especially  the  Dutch  settlements  at 
Malacca  and  the  Government  of  Siam,'  'There 
is  some  reason  to  think,'  the  instructions  continue, 
*  that  the  Dutch  will  claim  authority  over  the  State 
of  Johor  bv  virtue  of  some  old  engagements,  and, 
though  it  is  possible  the  pretension  might  be  success- 
fully combated,  it  will  not  be  consistent  with  the 
policy  or  present  views  of  the  Governor-General  in 
Council  to  raise  a  question  of  this  sort  with  the 
Netherlandish  authorities.  You  are  aware  also  of 
the  considerations  which  make  the  Governor-General 
in  Council  reluctant  to  engage  in  any  measures  that 
will   brine    us   in  collision  with  the    Government  of 


174       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Siam.'  The  general  effect  of  these  instructions  was 
to  render  possible  the  foundation  of  Singapore,  though 
the  injunction  may  be  criticised  which  enjoined  the 
mission  to  Acheen  to  be  first  carried  through.  In 
attempting  to  counteract  the  policy  of  an  aggressive 
and  truculent  power,  such  as  was  the  Dutch 
Batavian  Government,  it  was  above  all  things  neces- 
sary that,  whatever  was  done,  should  be  done  quickly, 
and  any  delay  would  have  permitted  a  repetition  at 
Johor  of  what  was  found  to  have  taken  place  at  Rhio. 
Raffles  proposed  to  get  rid  of  the  difficulty  by  send- 
ing forward  Major  Farquhar  beforehand,  but  happily 
the  strongly-expressed  desire  of  the  Prince  of  Wales's 
Island  Government  that  the  whole  question  of  the 
Acheen  Mission  should  be  postponed,  pending  the 
reference  to  Calcutta  of  important  letters,  afforded 
Raffles  an  excuse  for  pressing  forward  in  person  the 
other  object  of  his  mission.  His  conduct  did  not 
pass  unnoticed,  and  in  the  letter  of  August  14,  18 19, 
in  which  the  Secret  Committee  dealt  with  the  ques- 
tion of  Singapore,  it  is  asserted  that  Sir  Stamford's 
instructions  had  been  unquestionably  contravened 
in  the  letter  by  his  proceeding  to  Singapore  before 
he  visited  Acheen.  The  wisdom,  however,  of  his 
action  was  so  obvious  that  no  further  attempt  was 
made  to  censure  him  for  this. 

Sir  Stamford  arrived  at  Penang  on  December  31, 
where  he  found  that  a  letter  had  been  received  from 
Major  Farquhar,  announcing  that  the  Dutch  had 
taken  possession  of  Rhio  with  a  naval  and  military 
force.     Colonel  Bannerman,  the  Governor  of  Prince 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  175 

of  Wales's  Island,  regarded  with  extreme  jealousy  the 
mission  entrusted  to  Raffles.  He  could  not  forgive 
the  clause  in  the  Instructions  which  placed  the  general 
management  of  British  interests  beyond  the  Straits 
of  Malacca  under  the  Bencoolen  Government.  He 
felt  for  Raffles  the  personal  dislike  which  transcendent 
ability  generally  inspires  in  those  who,  in  spite  of 
their  pretensions,  are  conscious  at  bottom  of  their 
own  incapacity.  He  had  himself  failed  in  his  attempt 
to  counteract  Dutch  influence,  and  did  not  desire 
that  another  should  succeed  where  he  had  been  im- 
potent. Moreover,  he  had  been  seriously  impressed 
by  the  threats  launched  in  the  preceding  October 
by  the  Dutch  Commissioner.  It  was  therefore  natural 
that  he  should  now  maintain  that  it  was  no  longer 
practicable  to  execute  any  advantageous  political 
arrangements  with  the  Malay  States  to  the  east- 
ward. Lingen  and  Johor  he  was  convinced  were 
involved  in  the  fortunes  of  Rhio.  In  this  state  of 
things  he  implored  Raffles  to  abandon  his  under- 
taking. The  reply  is  striking.  '  I  am  equally  con- 
vinced with  you,'  wrote  Raffles,  '  that  it  is  no  longer 
in  the  power  of  the  British  Government  in  India 
to  execute  among  the  Malay  States  generally  any 
political  arrangements  as  a  due  counterpoise  to  the 
influence  of  the  Dutch.  These  arrangements  can 
only  be  made  in  Europe  ;  but  it  is  rather  to  preserve 
an  opening  for  the  operation  of  such  arrangements, 
when  made  in  Europe,  that  I  would  argue.' 

It    was  not    probable    that    Bannerman    would    be 
convinced,  and  so  Sir  Stamford  was  obliged  to  make 


176       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

the  formal  demand  for  men  and  material  authorised 
by  his  instructions.  At  first  Bannerman  seemed 
inclined  to  refuse  on  the  ground  that  the  object  of 
the  mission  was  now  incapable  of  fulfilment.  He 
was  not,  in  fact,  prepared  to  go  to  the  extreme 
length  of  a  refusal,  though  the  full  number  of  men 
demanded  was  never  sent.  Sir  Stamford  took  the 
precaution  of  writing  to  the  officer  commanding  the 
troops  in  Bencoolen  with  the  request  that  the 
companies  to  be  relieved  should  be  brought  round 
by  the  Straits  of  Sunda.  By  this  means  he  was  able 
to  prevent  serious  inconvenience.  At  the  same 
time,  in  these  proceedings,  he  appears  to  have  exceeded 
his  authority,  and  thus  laid  himself  open  to  the 
censure  of  his  enemies  in  the  Secret  Committee. 

Considering  the  importance  of  Singapore  to  the 
Empire,  everything  relating  to  its  foundation  is  of 
extreme  interest.  Lady  Raffles  states  that  'even 
before  he  left  England,  Sir  Stamford  contemplated 
this,  to  him,  classical  spot  as  a  place  favourably  situ- 
ated to  have  a  British  station.'  However  apocryphal 
may  have  been  the  history  of  the  past  greatness  of 
Singapore,  in  which  Raffles  delighted,  it  abundantly 
justified  itself,  if  it  was  the  indirect  cause  of  British 
Singapore.  At  any  rate,  as  early  as  December  12, 
1818,  Sir  Stamford  had  written  to  Mr  Marsden  : — 
'  My  attention  is  principally  turned  to  Johor,  and  you 
must  not  be  surprised  if  my  next  letter  to  you  is 
dated  from  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Singapore.'  ^ 

'  Captain  Ross  of  the  Disco'uery  and  Captain  Crawford  of  the  In-vesti- 
gator  were   sent  in   1818  to  survey  the  Straits   of  Malacca.       Captain 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  177 

In  writing  to  Colonel  Bannerman,  January  1,  1819,  he 
said  : — '  The  island  of  Singapore,  or  the  districts  of 
old  Johor,  appear  to  me  to  possess  peculiar  and  great 
advantages.'  On  January  16,  Raffles  wrote  to  the 
Supreme  Government : — '  The  island  of  Singapore, 
independently  of  the  Straits  and  harbour  of  Johor, 
which  it  both  forms  and  commands,  has,  on  its 
southern  shores,  and  by  means  of  the  several  smaller 
islands  which  lie  off  it,  excellent  anchorages  and 
smaller  harbours,  and  seems  in  every  respect  most 
peculiarly  adapted  for  our  object.  Its  position  in  the 
Straits  of  Singapore  is  far  more  convenient  and  com- 
manding than  even  Rhio  for  our  China  trade  passing 
down  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  and  every  native  vessel 
that  sails  through  the  Straits  of  Rhio  must  pass  in 
sight  of  it.  The  town  of  Johor  is  in  the  main,  at 
some  distance  up  the  river,  the  banks  of  which  are 
said  to  be  low  ;  but  on  the  score  of  salubrity  there 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  objection  to  a  station  at 
Singapore,  or  on  the  opposite  shore  towards  Point 
Romanea,  or  on  any  of  the  smaller  islands  which  lie 
off  this  part  of  the  coast.  The  larger  harbour  of 
Johor  is  declared  by  professional  men,  to  whom  I 
have  been  able  to  refer,  to  be  capacious  and  easily 
defensible,  and  the  British  flag  once  hoisted,  there 
would  be  no  want  of  supplies  to  meet  the  immediate 
necessities  of  our  establishment.' 

Rafflies  embarked  on  January  19,  overtaking  Major 

Crawford  described  'the  Singapore  islands'  as  'of  moderate  height, 
but  not  hilly  5  these  islands,  with  the  Malay  coast,  make  the  old 
straits.' 

M 


lyS       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Farquhar,  whom  he  had  sent  on  before.  The  first 
business  was  to  survey  the  Carimon  Islands,  as,  although 
Raffles  had  already  decided  that  Singapore  possessed 
upon  the  whole  more  advantages  than  any  other  site, 
the  Carimon  Islands  had  been  strongly  recommended 
by  Major  Farquhar.  They  found  them  objectionable 
as  being  uninhabited  and  covered  with  impervious 
forests,  '  although  well  situated  to  give  to  a  strong 
naval  power  the  command  of  the  straits  during  war.' 
The  little  fleet,  which  had  been  strengthened  by  the 
addition  of  two  surveying  vessels  of  the  Indian  Navy, 
anchored  ofF  St  John's  Island  on  the  evening  of 
January  28.  The  next  morning,  in  an  interview 
with  the  Tumung'gung  or  Resident  Governor,  Raffles 
received  the  welcome  news  that  no  claim  had  been 
made  to  Singapore  by  the  Dutch  authorities.  Johor 
had  been  long  deserted,  and  the  chief  authority  over 
it  and  all  the  adjacent  islands  (excepting  Rhio  and 
Lingen)  resided  at  the  ancient  capital  of  Singapore. 
The  Sultan  of  Johor  had  died  in  18 10,  leaving  two 
sons,  the  elder  of  whom  should  in  the  ordinary  course 
of  things  have  succeeded  to  the  throne.  At  the 
time,  however,  of  his  father's  death  he  was  away, 
and  the  law  required  that  the  Sultan's  body  should 
be  burned  iby  his  successor.  In  this  dilemma  the 
Viceroy  of  Rhio  set  up  the  younger  brother  as  Sultan 
against  his  will.  On  the  return  of  the  elder,  the 
younger  brother  sought  to  retire,  but  the  masterful 
Viceroy  maintained  him  as  a  dummy  in  his  own 
hands.  Meanwhile  the  two  hereditary  chiefs,  whose 
consent  was  necessary  to  a  valid  election,  the  Banda- 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  179 

hara  of  Pahang  and  the  Tumung'gung  of  Singapore, 
remained  faithful  to  the  lawful  heir,  though  the 
opportunity  was  wanting  to  press  his  claims.  Raffles 
at  once  recognised  the  advantages  offered  by  this 
situation.  A  messenger  was  promptly  despatched  to 
Rhio  to  summon  back  the  lawful  Sultan,  while  a  pre- 
liminary treaty  was  entered  into  on  January  30  with 
the  Tumunor'o-un^,  under  which  leave  was  obtained 
to  erect  a  British  factory.  Major  Farquhar  was  also 
sent  to  Rhio  to  find  out  whether  serious  objection 
would  be  raised  by  the  Viceroy  to  a  British  establish- 
ment at  Singapore.  He  returned  on  February  2, 
and  reported  that,  although  the  Viceroy  was  unable  to 
show  overt  marks  of  friendship,  the  provisions  of  the 
Dutch  treaty  were  expressly  confined  to  the  post  at 
Rhio.  The  Sultan  arrived  at  Singapore  on  February 
I,  and  paid  Raffles  a  visit  the  next  day,  on  which 
occasion  Sir  Stamford  explained  to  him  the  object  of 
his  mission.  On  February  6  a  treaty  was  executed 
'  in  triplicate  by  their  Highnesses,  and  by  me  in  the 
capacity  of  Agent  to  the  Governor-General.'  Under 
the  provisions  of  this  treaty  the  Sultan  agreed  to 
allow  the  British  to  erect  factories  in  any  part  of 
his  dominions.  In  return,  the  East  India  Company 
undertook  to  pay  the  Sultan  and  Tumung'gung  the 
yearly  sums  of  5000  and  3000  Spanish  dollars  respec- 
tively. Personal  protection  was  promised  to  the 
Sultan  so  long  as  he  continued  to  reside  in  the  im- 
mediate neighbourhood  of  any  place  belonging  to  the 
East  India  Company.  The  native  authorities  further 
agreed  neither   to    alienate   any   territory  to,   nor    to 


i8o       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

enter  into  any  treaty  with,  any  foreign  power.  All 
persons  belonging  to  the  factory,  after  registration, 
were  to  be  considered  British  subjects.  With  regard 
to  duties,  it  was  agreed  that  the  Tumung'gung  should 
receive  the  full  moiety  of  all  the  amounts  collected 
from  foreign  vessels. 

At  the  signing  of  the  treaty  'the  British  flag  was 
hoisted,  with  a  royal  salute  from  our  garrison,  from 
all  the  shipping,  and  from  the  Tumung'gung's 
battery.'  ^ 

A  formal  proclamation  was  issued  on  the  same  day 
appointing  Major  Farquhar  as  Resident,  and  notify- 
ing that  the  Residency  had  been  placed  under 
the  government  of  Fort  Marlborough.  Farquhar's 
appointment  had  been  directed  by  the  Supreme 
Government,  but  at  the  time  he  stood  high  in  Sir 
Stamford's  confidence.  In  a  despatch  of  over  forty 
pages  to  the  Supreme  Government,  Raffles  explained 
and  justified   the  acquisition    of  Singapore.       It    had 

'  Considerable  confusion  has  taken  place  as  to  the  exact  date  of  the 
acquisition  of  Singapore.  Lady  Raffles  gives  the  date  as  February  29, 
although  the  letters  she  quotes  prove  that  date  impossible.  The  authority 
for  this  wrong  date  was  really  the  memorial  drawn  up  by  Sir  Stamford 
Raffles  himself  on  his  return  voyage  to  England  with  respect  to  his 
services.  Unhappily  a  complete  account  of  the  whole  transaction 
perished  with  the  burning  of  the  Fame.  The  Rev.  R.  B.  Raffles  was 
the  first  to  demolish  the  first  date.  He  himself  considers  the  right 
date  to  be  January  29.  It  is  true  that  in  writing  to  Mr  Marsden,  on 
January  31,  Raffles  speaks  of  the  British  flag  as  already  waving,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  private  letter,  written  on  the  29th  by  a  member  of  the 
expedition,  shows  ignorance  still  of  its  exact  object,  while  Captain 
Butler  of  the  Hope,  who  passed  Singapore  on  the  31st,  'saw  tents 
pitched  on  shore,  and  several  vessels  at  anchor  with  the  Company's  colours 
flying,'  but  makes  no  mention  of  any  flag  upon  the  land.  As,  more- 
over, Singapore  was  not  res  nullius,  and  it  was  the  interest  of  Raffles  to 
recognise  the  authority  of  the  Sultan,  who  did  not  arrive  till  February  i, 
it  is  not  very  clear  by  what  right  the  British  flag  could  have  been  hoisted 
so  early  as  the  29th. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  i8i 

been  necessary  '  to  obtain  a  post  which  should  have 
a  commanding  geographical  position  off  the  southern 
entrance  of  the  Straits  of  Malacca  ;  which  should  be 
in  the  track  of  our  China  and  country  trade  ;  which 
should  be  capable  of  affording  them  protection  and  of 
supplying  their  wants  ;  which  should  possess  capabili- 
ties of  defence  by  a  moderate  force  ;  which  might 
give  us  the  means  of  supporting  and  extending  our 
commercial  intercourse  with  the  Malay  States,  and 
which  by  its  contiguity  to  the  seat  of  the  Dutch 
power  might  enable  us  to  watch  the  march  of  its 
policy,  and,  if  necessary,  to  counteract  its  influence.' 
'  Whether,'  he  added,  '  we  may  have  the  power  here- 
after of  extending  our  stations,  or  be  compelled  to 
confine  ourselves  to  this  factory,  the  spell  is  broken, 
and  one  independent  post  under  our  flag  may  be 
suflficient  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  the  system  of 
exclusive  monopoly  which  the  Dutch  once  exercised 
in  these  seas  and  would  willingly  re-establish,' 

It  was  not  likely  that  the  Dutch  would  tamely 
acquiesce  in  these  doings.  In  their  opinion  the  Far 
East  was  their  particular  preserve,  and  Raffles  a 
discreditable  poacher.  Moreover,  they  had  this 
further  argument.  Both  the  commercial  treaty  of 
Major  Farquhar  and  the  political  treaty  of  the  Dutch 
had  been  made  with  the  '  King  of  Johor,  Pahang  and 
dependencies,'  and  the  king  named  had  been  the 
younger  brother,  whom  now  Raffles  repudiated. 
Granted  that  the  real  principal  had  been  the  Rhio 
Viceroy,  still  the  appearance  of  a  new  pretender,  just 
when   he  was  wanted,   looked   a  trifle  suspicious.     It 


i82        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

was  easy  for  the  Tumung'gung  to  suggest  that  'as 
the  Dutch  had  treated  with  an  incompetent  authority, 
it  was  still  left  for  us  to  establish  ourselves  in  this 
division  of  the  Empire,  under  the  sanction  of  the 
legitimate  sovereign.'  The  same  astute  individual 
was,  however,  discovered  to  have  been  writing,  along 
with  the  Sultan,  to  the  Dutch,  excusing  their  conduct 
on  the  plea  that  they  had  acted  under  compulsion 
from  the  British.  Meanwhile  they  showed  no  desire 
to  restore  the  advantages  secured  by  themselves  under 
the  treaty.  When  their  intrigues  were  discovered 
they  signed  with  equal  cheerfulness  a  fresh  docu- 
ment, wherein  they  stated  that  their  motive  in  thus 
excusing  themselves  had  been  the  fear  of  the  Dutch 
vengeance.  '  But  I  here  call  God  and  his  holy 
Prophet  to  witness  that  the  English  established  them- 
selves at  Singapore  with  my  free  will  and  consent ; 
and  that  from  the  arrival  of  the  Honourable  Sir 
Thomas  Stamford  Raffles,  no  troops  or  effects  were 
landed,  or  anything  executed  but  with  the  free  accord 
of  the  Sultan  of  Johor  and  of  myself.'  Meanwhile  the 
Dutch  were  seriously  considering  what  should  be  the 
next  move  to  checkmate  Raffles.  At  first  there  were 
rumours  that  they  would  resort  to  force.  The 
Governor  of  Malacca  v/as  reported  to  have  given 
out  publicly  that  if  he  could  command  a  force  of 
600  men  he  would  instantly  proceed  against  Singa- 
pore. In  fact,  however,  he  contented  himself  with  a 
formal  protest  (March  10).  On  reflection,  the  Dutch 
may  well  have  considered  that  they  had  nothing  to 
gain  by  precipitate  action.     Hitherto  they  had  always 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  183 

obtained  what  they  wanted,  and  it  was  likely  that  the 
obsequious  Bannerman  better  represented  the  views  of 
his  London  masters  than  the  unruly  Raffles.  The 
decision  may  have  been  influenced  by  the  diplomacy 
of  Hastings.  '  Sir  T.  Raffles,'  he  wrote,  '  has  not 
sufficiently  explained  to  us  why  he  proceeded  to  Singa- 
pore after  learning  the  extent  of  the  pretensions 
advanced  by  your  agent  at  Malacca.  A  strict 
attention  to  our  instructions  would  have  induced  him 
to  avoid  the  possibility  of  collision  with  the  Nether- 
land  authorities  on  any  point,  and  so  sincere  is  our 
desire  to  bar  the  way  to  any  altercations  with  your 
Government  that  the  occupation  of  Singapore  has 
been  to  us  a  matter  of  unfeigned  regret.  In  fact, 
after  being  acquainted  with  the  extent  of  the  pre- 
tensions advanced  on  the  part  of  your  nation,  and 
before  we  knew  of  the  existence  of  a  factory  at  Singa- 
pore, we  had  issued  instructions  to  Sir  T.  S.  Raffles, 
directing  him,  if  our  orders  should  arrive  in  time,  to 
desist  from  every  attempt  to  form  a  British  establish- 
ment in  the  Eastern  Archipelago.'  But  now  that 
Singapore  was  an  accomplished  fact  it  was  '  impossible 
to  relinquish  our  possession  on  your  demand  without 
subscribing  to  the  rights  which  you  claim,  and  of 
which  we  are  not  satisfied,  thereby  awkwardly  fore- 
stalling the  judgment  which  was  to  have  taken  place 
at  home.' 

In  thus  expressing  himself  Lord  Hastings  was 
perfectly  consistent.  Before  Raffles  started  for  Prince 
of  Wales's  Island  a  letter  had  been  despatched  to  him 
which  fortunately  he  did  not  receive  till  too  late.     In 


1 84        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

this  the  Supreme  Government  directed  him  '  to  re- 
linquish the  prosecution  of  the  measures  confided  to 
his  management.'  The  fact  that  Raffles  had  clearly 
annoyed  his  own  superiors  rendered  the  Dutch  less 
inclined  to  active  interference.  It  is  easy  for  us  now 
to  come  to  this  conclusion  ;  at  the  time  the  danger  of 
collision  seemed  great.  In  this  connection  it  is  necessary 
to  dwell  upon  the  attitude  of  Colonel  Bannerman. 
His  untiring  efforts  to  thwart  British  interests  were 
worthy  of  a  better  cause.  When  the  Dutch  protest 
was  issued,  he  forwarded  it  to  Calcutta  with  a  cover- 
ing letter  of  approval.  When  a  rumour  arrived  that 
the  Dutch  were  preparing  to  seize  Singapore  by  a 
coup  de  main,  he  wrote  an  abject  letter  to  the  Governor 
of  Malacca,  wherein  he  entreated  that  no  measures 
might  be  taken  pending  the  reference  which  had  been 
made  to  the  Supreme  Government.  '  I  am  the  more 
induced,'  he  added,  '  to  make  this  appeal  to  you,  as  Sir 
Stamford  RafHes  is  not  under  the  control  of  this 
Government,  and  I  am  really  unacquainted  with  the 
nature  of  the  reply  he  may  have  returned  to  your 
communication  of  the  treaty  existing  between  your 
Government  and  the  kingdom  of  Rhio.' 

When  Major  Farquhar,  on  the  receipt  of  the  in- 
telligence that  a  sudden  attack  upon  Singapore  might 
be  expected,  applied  to  Colonel  Bannerman  for  assist- 
ance the  reply  ran  as  follows  : — '  The  intelligence 
vou  have  thought  it  your  duty  to  communicate  to  me, 
although  very  important,  you  must  have  been  well 
aware  could  excite  no  surprise  in  my  mind,  inasmuch 
as  you  were  personally  and  distinctly  apprised  by  me. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  185 

before  you  quitted  the  island,  that  you  were  proceeding 
in  an  undertaking  which  was  in  violation  of  the  orders 
of  the  Supreme  Government,  and  which  would  expose 
you  to  a  hostile  attack  from  the  Netherlanders.  .  .  . 
Although  it  is  not  the  province  of  this  Government 
to  furnish  you  with  any  instructions,  yet  a  perusal  of 
the  enclosed  documents  mav  serve  to  guide  your 
judgment  how  far  you  will  be  justified  in  shedding 
blood  in  the  maintenance  of  your  post,  and  particu- 
larly after  the  communication  made  to  the  Nether- 
landers by  the  Chiefs  of  Johor  and  Singapore,  which 
will  certainly  induce  them  to  consider  every  resistance 
on  your  part  as  adding  violence  to  injustice. 

'  The  Honourable  Company's  cruiser  Nearchus 
and  hired  brig  Ganges  will  afford  you  ample  means 
for  removing  your  party  from  Singapore,  in  the 
event  of  such  a  measure  becoming,  in  your  judg- 
ment, proper  and  necessary ;  but  I  have  distinctly 
to  inform  you  that  you  must  not  expect  any  re- 
inforcements from  this  Government,  until  a  reply 
is  received  from  the  Governor-General  in  Council, 
as  it  is  the  decided  conviction  of  this  Government 
that  any  force  from  this  island  could  not  oppose 
the  overpowering  armament  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Batavian  Government,  and  could  only  widen  the 
breach  which  the  late  proceedings  at  Singapore 
have  made  between  the  British  and  Netherlandish 
authorities.  ...  In  conclusion,  I  must  beg 
particularly  to  apprise  you  that,  after  the  receipt 
of  the  present  information  respecting  the  views 
of    the    Governor-General    and    the   sentiments     of 


i86       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

this  Government,  you  will  not  be  justified  in  the 
measure  of  shedding  blood  by  pleading  hereafter 
that  your  honour  as  a  soldier  compelled  you  to 
make  resistance.  As  a  soldier,  I  must  unequivocally 
declare  to  you  that  your  personal  honour  is  in 
no  degree  implicated  in  the  present  occasion  to 
render  the  shedding  of  blood  necessary'  (March 
i6,  1819).  Colonel  Bannerman  was  under  the 
impression  that  he  would  be  supported  in  his 
refusal  by  the  Supreme  Government.  On  the  ist 
of  January  he  had  written  that  the  idea  of  opposing 
the  Dutch,  by  founding  a  rival  settlement,  was 
'another  of  Sir  Stamford  Raffles's  aberrations,'  and 
had  received  a  reply  in  which  Lord  Hastings 
stated  'that  Sir  Thomas  Raffles  was  not  justified 
in  sending  Major  Farquhar  eastward  after  the 
Dutch  protested ;  and  if  the  post  has  not  yet 
been  obtained  he  is  to  desist  from  any  further 
attempt  to  establish  one'  (February  20,  1819). 
On  March  16,  Colonel  Bannerman  wrote  to 
Lord  Hastings :  —  'It  must  be  notorious  that  any 
force  we  are  able  to  detach  to  Singapore  could 
not  resist  the  overpowering  armament  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  Batavian  Government,  although  its 
presence  would  certainly  compel  Major  Farquhar 
to  resist  the  Netherlanders  even  to  the  shedding 
of  blood,  and  its  ultimate  and  forced  submission 
would  tarnish  the  national  honour  infinitely  more 
seriously  than  the  degradation  which  would  ensue 
from  the  retreat  of  the  small  party  now  at  Singa- 
pore.' 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  187 

'Neither  Major  Farquhar's  honour  as  a  soldier, 
nor  the  honour  of  the  British  Government,  can 
require  him  to  attempt  the  defence  of  Singapore 
by  force  of  arms  against  the  Netherlanders,  as  he 
knows  that  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  has  occupied  that 
island  in  violation  of  the  orders  of  the  Supreme 
Government,  and  as  he  knov^^s  that  any  opposition 
from  his  present  small  party  would  be  a  useless 
and  reprehensible  sacrifice  of  men  when  made 
against  the  overwhelming  naval  and  military  force 
that  the  Dutch  will  employ.  .  .  .  The  question 
is,  shall  the  Governor  reinforce  Major  Farquhar, 
and  invite  him  to  a  violent  opposition  against  the 
Netherlanders  ?  or  shall  it  recommend  him  rather  to 
evacuate  the  post  Sir  S.  Raffles  has  so  injudiciously 
chosen  than  shed  a  drop  of  human  blood  in  its 
defence  r  After  the  knowledge  we  possess  of  the 
views  and  present  policy  of  the  Governor-General  ; 
after  the  information  we  have  obtained  of  the 
means  used  by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  to  obtain 
the  island  of  Singapore ;  and  after  the  intelligence 
we  have  received  of  the  Dutch  right  to  that 
territory,  admitted  as  it  is  by  the  secret  corre- 
spondence of  the  chiefs  there,  I  am  decidedly  of 
opinion  that  this  Government  will  not  be  justified 
in  reinforcing  Major  Farquhar  and  inciting  him 
to  resist  the  Hollanders  by  force  of  arms.  I  had 
fully  stated  the  possibility  of  a  hostile  attack  from 
the  Dutch  to  the  worthy  Major,  when  he  first 
lost  sight  of  his  usual  prudence,  and  allowed  him- 
self to  be  seduced  and  made  a  party  in  Sir  Stamford 


i88       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Raffles's  proceedings  .  .  .  and  although  my  advice 
was  then  little  attended  to,  yet  my  duty,  as  well 
as  a  considerable  portion  of  personal  regard,  will 
not  now  permit  me  to  withhold  from  offering  it 
to  him  again,  accompanied  as  it  may  be  with 
much  responsibility  to  myself.'  Colonel  Bannerman 
stood  amazed  at  his  own  daring  in  risking  the 
displeasure  of  the  Dutch  by  furnishing  means  to 
Major  Farquhar  'to  withdraw  the  establishment 
from  Singapore,  which  he  otherwise  would  not 
and  could  not  have  done.'  Still  he  must  venture. 
'  I  confess  the  mortification  to  me  would  be  infinitely 
aggravated  if  I  saw  Major  Farquhar  and  his  detach- 
ment brought  into  this  port  under  a  Dutch  flag.' 
The  sting  of  the  despatch  lay  in  its  tail.  The 
jealousy  of  Penang  against  a  possible  rival,  the 
jealousy  of  a  feeble  and  mean-spirited  official  against 
a  builder  of  Greater  Britain  inspired  his  pen.  '  How- 
ever invidious  the  task,  I  cannot  close  this  minute 
without  pointing  out  to  the  notice  of  our  superior 
the  very  extraordinary  conduct  of  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Bencoolen.  He  posts  a  detachment  at 
Singapore,  under  very  equivocal  circumstances,  with- 
out even  the  means  of  coming  away,  and  with  such 
defective  instructions  and  slender  resources  that  before 
it  has  been  there  a  month  its  commander  is  obliged  to 
apply  for  money  to  this  Government,  whose  duty  it 
becomes  to  offer  that  officer  advice  and  means  against 
an  event  which  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  ought  to  have 
expected,  and  for  which  he  ought  to  have  made  an 
express  provision    in    his   instructions   to   that   officer. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  189 

...  He  set  off  for  Acheen,  and  left  Major  Farquhar 
to  shift  for  himself.  In  fact,  he  acted  (as  a  friend  of 
mine  emphatically  observed)  like  a  man  who  sets  a 
house  on  fire  and  then  runs  away.' 

It  is  unnecessary  to  defend  Raffles  against  the 
spiteful  insinuation  thus  conveyed,  because  in  leaving 
the  new  post  after  its  foundation  he  was  simply  carry- 
ing out  the  express  order  of  the  Governor-General. 
Lord  Hastings  was  by  no  means  a  blind  partisan  of 
Raffles,  and  he  was  most  anxious  to  comply  with  the 
repeated  injunctions  of  the  Home  Government  that 
any  collision  with  the  Dutch  should  be  scrupulously 
avoided.  At  the  same  time  he  was  the  representative 
of  an  imperial  authority,  whose  position  had  not  been 
won  by  methods  such  as  Bannerman  suggested,  and 
he  knew  that  nothing  was  so  likely  to  endanger  peace 
as  any  show  of  the  white  feather.  '  With  regard  to 
Singapore,'  the  Supreme  Government  wrote  on 
April  8,  1 8 19,  'we  say  that  we  think  your  Govern- 
ment entirely  wrong  in  determining  so  broadly 
against  the  propriety  of  the  step  taken  by  Sir 
Stamford  Raffles.  The  opposition  of  the  Dutch 
was  not  of  the  nature  which  we  had  directed  to 
be  shunned  under  the  description  of  collision.  The 
ground  on  which  Sir  Thomas  Raffles  stood  was  this  : 
that  Singapore  was  never  mentioned  in  the  treaty 
between  the  Sultan  of  Johor  and  the  Dutch.  The 
supposition  that  it  was  included  in  the  general  term 
of  dependencies  is  one  of  these  gratuitous  assumptions 
which  merit  no  consideration.  We  fear  you  will 
have    difficulty    in    excusing    yourselves   should    the 


190       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Dutch  be  tempted  to  violence  against  that  post. 
The  jealousy  of  it,  should  misfortune  occur  and 
be  traceable  to  neglect  originating  in  such  a  feeling, 
will  find  no  tolerance  with  the  Government,  who 
must  be  satisfied  (which  is  not  now  the  case)  that 
perseverance  in  maintaining  the  post  would  be  an 
infraction  of  equity,  before  they  can  consent  to 
abandon  it.'  On  the  receipt  of  this  rebuke  Colonel 
Bannerman,  of  course,  promptly  despatched  two 
hundred  men,  but  had  the  Dutch  threats  been 
followed  by  action,  they  would  have  been  too  late 
to  have  been  of  any  use  to  Major  Farquhar. 

The  final  verdict  of  the  Supreme  Government  on 
Raffles's  conduct  in  founding  Singapore  was  thus 
expressed  : — '  The  selection  of  Singapore  for  a  port 
is  considered,  as  to  locality,  to  have  been  highly 
judicious,  and  your  proceedings  in  establishing  a 
factory  in  that  place  do  honour  to  your  approved 
skill  and  ability,  though  the  measure  itself,  as  wilfully 
incurring  a  collision  with  the  Dutch  authorities, 
which  might  have  been  avoided,  is  much  regretted.' 

It  by  no  means  followed,  even  now,  that  the  cause 
of  Singapore  was  gained.  Above  the  petty  jealousies 
of  the  Prince  of  Wales's  Island  and  its  spiteful 
Governor,  above  and  beyond  the  blusterings  of 
Dutch  officials,  outraged  at  being  hoist  with 
their  own  petard,  even  above  and  beyond  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Governor-General,  there  was  the  final 
Court  of  Appeal  of  the  British  Government,  which 
assuredly  approached  the  case  with  no  bias  in  favour 
of    one    whom     Lord     Bathurst     had     so     recently 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  191 

repudiated  in  the  House  of  Lords.  '  Tantce  molts 
erat '  to  preserve  the  open  door  to  the  Far  East, 
can  truly  be  said  by  those  who  have  read  the 
despatches  in  the  India  Office.  About  a  week 
before  the  acquisition  of  Singapore,  a  letter  had 
been  sent  to  Bengal,  directing  that  positive  instruc- 
tions should  be  issued  to  Raffles,  forbidding  him  from 
contracting  any  engagements  with  the  native  states 
in  the  Eastern  seas  without  first  obtaining  the 
approbation  of  the  superior  authorities.  When  the 
news  was  received-  of  his  mission,  the  Secret  Com- 
mittee wrote  expressing  disapproval  both  of  the 
employment  of  Raffles  and  of  the  measures  contem- 
plated. It  is,  however,  to  the  despatch  of  August  14, 
1819,  that  we  must  look  to  learn  the  reception  given 
to  the  news  of  the  acquisition  of  Singapore.  'A 
definitive  judgment,'  wrote  the  Secret  Committee, 
'  upon  the  conduct  of  Sir  T.  Stamford  Raffles  in 
respect  to  Singapore  must  be  delayed  until  the 
receipt  of  the  Governor-General's  opinion  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  his  Lordship's  instructions  have 
been  executed,  more  especially  as  the  objections 
founded  by  the  Governor-General  on  the  written 
instructions  in  question  were  answered  by  Sir 
Thomas's  assertion  that  he  was  wholly  entrusted 
with  discretionary  powers ;  an  assertion  which 
brings  to  mind  one  of  a  similar  sort  as  to  the 
tenor  of  the  communications  made  to  him  in  con- 
versation before  he  left  England.  With  respect 
to  the  written  instructions  furnished  to  Sir  Thomas 
by  the  Governor-General  in   Council,  they  have  un- 


192        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

questionably  been  contravened  both  in  letter  and  in 
spirit ;  in  the  letter,  by  his  proceeding  to  the  eastward 
before  he  visited  Acheen,  and  by  communicating 
privately  with  the  King  of  Acheen  before  he  went  to 
the  seat  of  the  Acheenese  Government ;  and,  in  spirit, 
by  risking  a  collision  with  the  Dutch  in  the  Straits  of 
Malacca.  The  false  steps  taken  by  Sir  Thomas  in 
concluding  treaties  with  the  chiefs  of  Sumatra,  in 
instigating  a  spirit  of  resistance  to  the  Dutch,  and  in 
assuming  the  title  of  Agent  to  Great  Britain  in  the 
Eastern  seas,  rendered  doubtful  the  expediency  of 
employing  him  at  all  in  any  negotiation  or  under- 
taking in  the  Eastern  seas.  No  time  is  to  be  lost  in 
disavowing  the  treaties  concluded  by  him  with  the 
chiefs  of  Sumatra ;  and  if  Sir  Thomas  Stamford 
Raffles  should  evade  an  order  to  this  effect,  the  duty 
of  disabusing  the  said  chiefs  must  be  confided  to  the 
Government  of  Prince  of  Wales's  Island.  His  Majesty's 
Government  were  about  to  propose  an  amicable  dis- 
cussion with  the  Netherland  Government  .  ,  .  when 
intelligence  of  the  acquisition  of  Singapore  arrived. 
If  the  discussion  is  to  be  interrupted  by  the  intelli- 
gence of  fresh  feuds  and  violence  in  the  Eastern  seas, 
it  seems  quite  hopeless  to  begin  the  work  of  amicable 
adjustment  ...  if  the  Dutch  should  forcibly  expel 
our  garrison  at  Singapore,  we  must  either  submit  in 
silence,  or  demand  reparation  at  the  hazard  of  a  war 
which  may  involve  all  Europe.  .  .  .  The  doubt 
stated  by  the  Government  of  Prince  of  Wales's  Island 
as  to  the  competency  of  the  East  India  Company 
under    the    new   charter    to    make   conquests    to    the 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  193 

southward  of  the  Line  is  considered  as  being  well 
founded/  Sir  Thomas  Stamford  Raffles  cannot  pre- 
sume to  suppose  that  he  has  been  empowered  by  His 
Majesty's  Government  to  make  such  acquisitions  on 
behalf  of  the  Crown.  He  has  by  no  means  made  out 
the  title  of  the  chief  from  whom  he  has  obtained  the 
cession  of  Singapore  ;  and  as  the  Dutch  had  asserted 
a  previous  claim  to  Singapore,  founded  upon  grants 
from  the  Sultan  of  Rhio,  he  was  bound  by  his  instruc- 
tions so  far  to  respect  such  claim  as  to  make  its 
validity  a  matter  of  discussion,  and  to  refer  that 
discussion  to  Bengal.  He  has  thought  proper  to  act 
in  direct  contradiction  to  those  instructions,  and  has 
chosen  to  presume  that  the  discussion  will  go  on  more 
favourably  to  this  country  if,  instead  of  the  tedious 
process  of  investigating  the  title  of  the  Dutch  Govern- 
ment to  all  that  they  claim,  His  Majesty's  Ministers 
shall  have  only  to  maintain  Sir  Thomas  Stamford 
Raffles  in  possessions  which  he  has  thought  proper 
to  occupy.'  In  spite  of  this  display  of  their  feelings 
on  the  subject,  the  Committee  decided  to  await  the 
explanations  of  Lord  Hastings  '  before  retaining  or 
relinquishing  Sir  Thomas  Raffles's  acquisition  at 
Singapore.' 

Unpromising  as  may  have  sounded  this  opinion,  it 
really  admitted  everything  which  Raffles  needed  to 
ask.  All  that  was  required  was  time,  wherein  Singa- 
pore might  show  the  inherent  advantages  attaching 
to  it.  Most  fortunately  the  settlement  involved  no 
large  initial  outlay.     The  expense  of  administration 

'  Singapore  was  of  course  north  of  the  Equator. 

N 


194       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

for  a  whole  year  was  not  greater  than  the  expense 
for  a  single  month  at  Bencoolen.  The  remarkable 
advantages  of  the  natural  situation  of  Singapore  caused 
trade  from  the  first  to  advance  by  leaps  and  bounds. 
By  August  1820  the  population  was  estimated  at  about 
10,000  or  12,000.  For  some  time  the  letters  of 
Raffles  manifest  the  hesitation  and  doubt  under  which 
he  laboured  as  to  the  final  decision  of  Government. 
If  he  were  to  fail  now,  he  would  throw  up  the  sponge 
and  turn  philosopher.  In  fact,  however,  the  cause  of 
Singapore  had  already  virtually  succeeded.  As  early 
as  July  1 8 19  a  level-headed  Director  of  the  East 
India  Company,  Mr  Charles  Grant,  could  write  : — 
*  The  acquisition  of  Singapore  grows  in  importance. 
The  stir  made  here  lately  for  the  further  enlargement 
of  the  Eastern  trade  fortified  that  impression.  It  is 
now  accredited  in  the  India  House.  Of  late,  in  an 
examination  before  a  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  I  gave  my  opinion  of  the  value,  in  a  moral, 
political  and  commercial  view,  of  a  British  establish- 
ment in  the  locality  of  Singapore,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Company.  From  all  these  circumstances  and 
others,  I  augur  well  as  to  the  retention  and  encourage- 
ment of  the  station  your  rapidity  has  preoccupied.' 
A  further  consideration,  which  doubtless  greatly  in- 
fluenced the  home  authorities,  was  the  conviction 
which  was  soon  brought  home  to  them  that,  however 
indignant  the  Dutch  might  be,  they  would  acquiesce 
in  accomplished  facts.  In  truth,  the  acquisition  of 
Singapore  paved  the  way  for  the  friendly  arrangement 
under  which,  a  few  years  later,  Bencoolen  was  ex- 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  195 

changed  for  Malacca.  Nevertheless,  the  more  long- 
sighted among  the  Dutch  recognised  that  a  blow  had 
been  struck  against  their  predominance  in  the  Eastern 
seas,  from  which  it  was  never  destined  to  recover  ; 
and  so  it  is  not  without  cause,  from  a  patriotic  stand- 
point, that  the  Dutch  historian,  while  giving  an  im- 
partial estimate  of  the  general  character  and  services 
of  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  can  neither  forget  nor  forgive 
*  that  outrageous  injustice  which  bears  the  name  of 
Singapore/ 

Our  hero's  own  feelings  with  regard  to  his  new 
acquisition  must  be  sought  in  the  pages  of  his  private 
correspondence.  He  wrote  to  Mr  Marsden  on 
January  31  : — '  Here  I  am  at  Singapore,  true  to  my 
word,  and  in  the  enjoyment  of  all  the  pleasures  which 
a  footing  on  such  classic  ground  must  inspire.  The 
lines  of  the  old  city  and  of  its  defences  are  still  to  be 
traced,  and  within  its  ramparts  the  Union  Jack  floats 
unmolested.  .  .  .  The  place  possesses  an  excellent 
harbour  and  everything  that  can  be  d,esired  for  a 
British  port  in  the  island  of  St  John's,  which  forms 
the  south-western  point  of  the  harbour.  We  have 
commanded  an  intercourse  with  all  the  ships  passing 
through  the  Straits  of  Singapore.  .  .  .  This,  there- 
fore, will  probably  be  my  last  attempt.  If  I  am 
deserted  now  I  must  fain  return  to  Bencoolen  and 
become  philosopher.'  To  another  correspondent  he 
wrote  on  February  19  : — '  In  short,  Singapore  is 
everything  we  could  desire,  and  I  may  consider 
myself  most  fortunate  in  the  selection  ;  it  will  soon 
rise  into   importance ;    and   with    this   single   station 


196       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

alone  I  will  undertake  to  counteract  the  plans  of 
Mynheer  ;  it  breaks  the  spell,  and  they  are  no  longer 
the  exclusive  sovereigns  of  the  Eastern  seas.'  Again 
he  told  the  Duchess  of  Somerset  (February  22),  'It 
has  been  my  good  fortune  to  establish  this  station  in 
a  position  containing  every  possible  advantage,  geo- 
graphical and  local  ;  and  if  I  only  meet  with  ordinary 
support  from  the  higher  powers,  I  shall  effectually 
check  the  plans  of  the  Dutch.  ...  If  this  last  effort 
for  securing  our  interests  also  fails,  I  must  be  content 
to  quit  politics  and  turn  philosopher.'  In  a  similar 
strain  he  addresses  Colonel  Addenbrooke  (in  the 
following  June): — 'I  shall  say  nothing  of  the  im- 
portance which  I  attach  to  the  permanence  of  the 
position  I  have  taken  up  at  Singapore  ;  it  is  a  child  of 
my  own.  But  for  my  Malay  studies  I  should  hardly 
have  known  that  such  a  place  existed  ;  not  only  the 
European  but  the  Indian  world  was  also  ignorant  of 
it.  .  .  .  It  is  within  a  week's  sail  of  China  ;  still 
closer  to  Siam,  Cochin  China,  etc. ;  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  Archipelago,  or,  as  the  Malays  call  it, 
it  is  the  navel  of  the  Malay  countries.  Already  a 
population  of  above  5000  souls  has  collected  under 
our  flag.  ...  I  am  sure  you  will  wish  me  success 
...  if  my  plans  are  confirmed  at  home,  it  is  my 
intention  to  make  this  my  principal  residence,  and  to 
devote  the  remaining  years  of  my  stay  in  the  East  to 
the  advancement  of  a  colony  which,  in  every  way  it 
can  be  viewed,  bids  fair  to  be  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant, and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  least 
expensive  and  troublesome,  which  we  possess.     Our 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  197 

object  is  not  territory  but  trade  j  a  great  commercial 
emporium  and  fulcrum^  whence  we  may  extend  our 
influence  politically  as  circumstances  may  hereafter 
require.  By  taking  immediate  possession  we  put  a 
negative  to  the  Dutch  claim  of  exclusion,  and  at  the 
same  time  revive  the  drooping  confidence  of  our 
allies  and  friends.  One  free  port  in  these  seas  must 
eventually  destroy  the  spell  of  Dutch  monopoly  ;  and 
what  Malta  is  in  the  West,  that  may  Singapore 
become  in  the  East.' 

A  very  few  words  must  suffice  for  the  mission  to 
Acheen.  Raffles  and  his  colleague  arrived  there 
on  March  14,  having  started  on  the  8th.  The 
desire  of  the  Supreme  Government  was  to  establish 
friendly  relations  with  the  ruler  of  Acheen,  so  as  to 
exclude  Dutch  influence.  Unfortunately  it  was  not 
clear  who  was  the  ruler.  There  were  two  claimants 
to  the  throne,  neither  of  whom  possessed  commanding 
authority.  The  original  monarch  had  been  dispos- 
sessed in  18 15  by  a  rival  who  had  at  once  abdicated 
in  favour  of  his  second  son.  It  was  admitted  that  the 
conduct  of  the  dethroned  King  had  been  imprudent 
and  inconsiderate,  and  that  he  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  bad  European  advisers.  On  these  grounds 
the  Prince  of  Wales's  Island  Government  supported  the 
new  King.  Raffles,  on  the  other  hand,  maintained 
that  the  late  King  had  learnt  wisdom  in  the  school  of 
adversity,  that  he  was  supported  by  the  majority  of 
the  people,  and  that  the  sole  strength  of  the  usurping 
King  lay  in  the  possession  of  a  navy.  He  therefore 
treated    with    the    former,    carrying    with    him    the 


198       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

reluctant  consent  of  the  other  Commissioner,  Captain 
Coombs.  It  may  be  admitted  that,  when  once 
Raffles  had  arrived  at  a  conclusion,  he  did  not  much 
cultivate  appearances  in  maintaining  a  judicial  attitude. 
At  anyrate,  his  conduct  of  this  mission  gave  loopholes 
to  an  enemy's  attack.  He  had  despatched  a  private 
messenger  to  the  claimant  whom  he  favoured,  a  step 
which  received  the  censure  of  the  Supreme  Govern- 
ment. His  conduct  in  forwarding  despatches  without 
communication  with  his  colleague  was  characterised 
as  '  extremely  uncourteous,'  and  '  wholly  devoid  of  any 
sufficient  motive  with  reference  to  the  public  service.' 
The  refusal  to  interview  the  Sagis  or  chiefs,  '  after 
they  had  assembled  at  a  distance  at  your  invitation,' 
was  severely  censured.  The  treaty  would  be  ratified 
as  the  '  best  course  now  to  be  pursued.'  At  the  same 
time  no  further  measures  of  interference  were  to  be 
prosecuted.  With  regard  to  the  treaty  itself  its 
advantages  appeared  precarious.  'The  only  part 
certain  is  the  expense  which  is  at  once  incurred.' 
In  fact,  the  complete  success  of  Raffles  at  Singapore 
rendered  the  question  of  Acheen  of  less  importarkce. 
When  we  remember  that  our  Dutch  friends  have 
only  recently  secured  predominance  at  Acheen,  after 
a  war  which  lasted  over  twenty  years,  we  may  rejoice 
that  British  interests  did  not  thrust  us  into  this 
hornet's  nest. 


CHAPTER    XII 

LIFE    AT    BENCOOLEN 

Home    Life — Travels    to  Interior — Death   of  Children — Illness — 
Homesick. 

Although  Raffles  was  the  only  begetter  and  author 
of  British  Singapore,  the  actual  time  he  spent  there 
was  very  short.  After  its  first  acquisition  he  did 
not  return  thither  till  October  1822,  when  he  re- 
mained till  the  following  June.  We  have  seen 
something  of  the  public  occupations  which  em- 
ployed him  while  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bencoolen  ; 
there  remains  to  give  some  description  of  his  private 
life  during  this  period.  Material  is  not  wanting, 
as  the  Memoir  written  by  his  widow  naturally 
deals  at  greater  length  with  the  portion  of 
Sir  Stamford's  life  of  which  she  had  first-hand 
knowledge.  Lady  Raffles  writes  of  the  time  im- 
mediately following  the  return  from  Singapore  : — 
*  Perhaps  this  was  one  of  the  most  happy  periods 
in  Sir  Stamford's  life.  Politically  he  had  attained 
the  object  which  he  felt  so  necessary  for  the  good 
of  his  country  (the  establishment  of  Singapore). 
He  was  beloved  by  all  those  under  his  immediate 
control,    who    united    in    showing    him    every    mark 

199 


2  00       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

of  respect  and  attachment,  and  many  were  bound 
to  him  by  ties  of  gratitude  for  offices  of  kindness, 
for  private  acts  of  benevolence  and  assistance  which 
he  delighted  to  exercise  towards  them.  The  settle- 
ment, like  many  other  small  societies,  was  divided 
into  about  as  many  parties  as  there  were  families 
on  his  first  arrival ;  but  these  differences  were  soon 
healed  and  quieted,  and  a  general  interchange  of 
good  offices  had  succeeded.  The  natives  and  chiefs 
appreciated  the  interest  which  he  took  in  their 
improvement,  and  placed  implicit  reliance  upon  his 
opinion  and  counsel.  The  consciousness  of  being 
beloved  is  a  delightful,  happy  feeling,  and  Sir  Stamford 
acknowledged  with  thankfulness  at  the  time  that 
every  wish  of  his  heart  was  gratified.  Uninterrupted 
health  had  prevailed  in  his  family,  his  children  were 
his  pride  and  delight,  and  they  had  already  imbibed 
from  him  those  tastes  it  was  his  pleasure  to  cultivate  ; 
this  will  not  be  wondered  at,  even  at  their  early 
age,  when  it  is  added  that  two  young  tigers  and  a 
bear  were  for  some  time  in  the  children's  apartments, 
under  the  charge  of  their  attendant,  without  being 
confined  in  cages,  and  it  was  rather  a  curious  scene 
to  see  the  children,  the  bear,  the  tigers,  a  blue 
mountain  bird  and  a  favourite  cat  all  playing 
together,  the  parrot's  beak  being  the  only  object 
of  awe  to  all  the  party.'  '  The  lower  part  of  our 
house  at  this  moment,'  Sir  Stamford  writes  to  the 
Duchess  of  Somerset  from  Penang  (February  22, 
1 8 19),  'is  more  like  the  menagerie  at  Exeter  'Change 
than  the  residence  of  a  gentleman.     Fish,  flesh  and 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  201 

fowl  alike  contribute  to  the  collection,  and,  above, 
the  rooms  are  variously  ornamented  with  bunches 
of  flowers,  rendering  them  so  many  arbours.  There 
are  no  less  than  five  draughtsmen  constantly  employed, 
and  with  all  our  diligence  we  can  hardly  keep  pace 
with  the  new  acquisitions  which  are  daily  made. 
In  another  letter  written  in  1820  from  Bencoolen, 
he  speaks  of  a  young  pet  elephant  four  feet  high. 
He  continues  :  '  I  have  one  of  the  most  beautiful  men 
of  the  woods  that  can  be  conceived.  He  is  not  much 
above  three  feet  high,  wears  a  beautiful  surtout  of 
fine  white  woollen,  and  in  his  disposition  and  habits 
the  kindest  and  most  correct  creature  imaginable.  .  .  . 
He  has  not  the  slightest  rudiment  of  a  tail,  always 
walks  erect,  and  will,  I  am  quite  sure,  soon  become 
a  great  favourite  in  Park  Lane.' 

Throughout  the  letters  the  fondness  for  children 
as  well  as  for  animals  is  very  noticeable.  Sir  Stam- 
ford went  among  the  children  of  the  Duke  of 
Somerset  by  the  name  of  '  the  dear  Governor,'  and 
the  messages  to  Seymour  and  Anna  Maria  are  con- 
tinually recurring.  Meanwhile,  '  perhaps  few  people 
in  a  public  station  led  so  simple  a  life.  While  he 
was  in  Bencoolen,  he  rose  early  and  delighted  in 
driving  into  the  villages,  inspecting  the  plantations, 
and  encouraging  the  industry  of  the  people ;  at 
nine  a  party  assembled  at  breakfast,  which  separated 
immediately  afterwards  ;  and  he  wrote,  read,  studied 
natural  history,  chemistry  and  geology,  superintended 
the  draughtsmen,  of  whom  he  had  constantly  five  or 
six    employed    in    a    verandah,    and    always   had    his 


202       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

children  with  him  as  he  went  from  one  pursuit  to 
another,  visiting  his  beautiful  and  extensive  aviary, 
as  well  as  the  extraordinary  collection  of  animals 
which  were  always  domesticating  in  the  house. 
At  four  he  dined,  and  seldom  alone,  as  he  considered 
the  settlement  but  as  a  family  of  which  he  was  the 
head  ;  immediately  after  dinner  all  the  party  drove 
out,  and  the  evening  was  spent  in  reading,  music  and 
conversation.  He  never  had  any  game  of  amusement 
in  his  house.  After  the  party  had  dispersed,  he  was 
fond  of  walking  out  with  the  editor,^  and  enjoying 
the  delicious  coolness  of  the  night  land-wind,  and  a 
moon  whose  beauty  those  only  who  have  been  in 
tropical  climates  can  judge  of,  so  clear  and  pene- 
trating are  its  rays  that  many  fear  them  as  much  as 
the  glare  of  the  sun.  Though  scarcely  a  day  passed 
without  reptiles  of  all  kinds  being  brought  in,  and 
the  Cobra  de  Capello  in  numbers,  the  editor  never 
remembers  these  pleasures  being  interrupted  by 
any  alarm.' 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  portion  of  Lady 
Raffles's  Me?noir  are  the  chapters  which  deal  with  the 
expeditions  made  by  Sir  Stamford  in  her  company  into 
the  interior  of  the  country.  At  the  time  women 
travellers  were  not  in  evidence  as  they  are  to-day, 
and  Lady  Raffles  does  not  appear  to  have  been  by 
nature  fond  of  adventure ;  but  she  was  a  devoted 
wife,  and  believed,  as  her  correspondence  shows,  that 
Sir  Stamford  might  at  any  moment  be  struck  down 
by  sudden  illness,  and  that  it  was  therefore  necessary 

'Larly  Raffles  always  speaks  of  herself  as  'the  editor.' 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  203 

that  she  should  be  by  his  side.  Raffles  would  gladly 
have  spared  her  the  hardships  of  this  travelling,  but 
she  insisted.  In  a  description  of  the  journey  in  1818 
to  the  interior  from  Manna,  vi^herein  they  discovered 
the  gigantic  Rafflesia  Arnoldi  flower,  Sir  Stamford 
writes  : — 

*  There  is  nothing  more  striking  in  the  Malayan 
forests  than  the  grandeur  of  the  vegetation  ;  the 
magnitude  of  the  flowers,  creepers  and  trees  contrasts 
strikingly  with  the  stunted,  and,  I  had  almost  said, 
pigmy,  vegetation  of  England.  Compared  with  our 
forest  trees,  your  largest  oak  is  a  mere  dwarf.  .  .  . 
The  day's  journey  being  most  fatiguing,  and  not  less 
than  thirty  miles  entirely  through  a  thick  forest  and 
over  stupendous  mountains.  .  .  .  We  got  on,  how- 
ever, very  well ;  and  though  we  were  all  occasionally 
much  fatigued,  we  did  not  complain.  Lady  Raffles 
was  a  perfect  heroine.  The  only  misfortune  at  this 
step  was  a  heavy  fall  of  rain  during  the  night,  which 
penetrated  our  leafy  dwelling  in  every  direction,  and 
soaked  every  one  of  the  party  to  the  skin.  We  were 
now  two  days'  march  beyond  the  reach  of  supplies  ; 
many  of  our  coolies  had  dropped  off^ ;  some  v/ere  fairly 
exhausted,  and  we  began  to  wish  our  journey  at  an 
end.  We,  however,  contrived  to  make  a  good  dinner 
on  the  remaining  fowl,  and  having  plenty  of  rice  and 
claret,  did  not  complain  of  our  fare.'  It  was  on  this 
journey  that  Sir  Stamford  made  one  of  the  treaties 
with  the  native  chiefs  so  severely  criticised  at  home. 
He  was  much  struck  by  the  moral  and  physical  well- 
being  of  the  people,  and  the  wealth  of  the  country. 


204       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

*We  now  thought  of  returning  to  the  coast,  and 
on  the  24th  set  ofF  from  Manna  by  a  different  route 
to  that  by  which  we  had  arrived.  Our  first  day's 
journey  was  to  Camumuan,  which  we  reached  a  little 
before  six  in  the  evening,  after  the  hardest  day's  walk 
I  ever  experienced.  We  calculated  that  we  had 
walked  more  than  thirty  miles,  and  over  the  worst 
of  roads.  Hitherto  we  had  been  fortunate  in  our 
weather,  but,  before  we  reached  this  place,  a  heavy 
rain  came  on  and  soaked  us  completely.  The  baggage 
only  came  up  in  part,  and  we  were  content  to  sleep 
in  our  wet  clothes,  under  the  best  shade  we  could 
find.  No  wood  would  burn  ;  there  was  no  moon  ; 
it  was  already  dark,  and  we  had  no  shelter  erected. 
By  perseverance,  however,  I  made  a  tolerable  place 
for  Lady  Raffles,  and,  after  selecting  the  smoothest 
stone  I  could  find  in  the  bed  of  a  river  for  a  pillow, 
we  managed  to  pass  a  tolerably  comfortable  night.  .  .  . 
The  next  day  we  reached  Merambung,  where  we  got 
upon  a  raft,  and  were  wafted  down  to  the  vicinity  of 
Manna  in  about  seven  hours.  The  passage  down  the 
river  was  extremely  romantic  and  grand ;  it  is  one 
of  the  most  rapid  rivers  on  the  coast ;  we  descended 
a  rapid  almost  every  hundred  yards.' 

The  journey  down  the  coast  from  Manna  was 
performed  on  horseback,  principally  on  the  sea  beach, 
and  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  on  account  of  tigers. 
The  heat  of  the  tropical  sun  proved  fatal  to  one  of 
the  party,  the  botanist,  Dr  Arnold,  whose  loss  both 
on  private  and  scientific  grounds  was  a  severe  blow  to 
Raffles. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  205 

A  yet  more  interesting  expedition  was  made  in  the 
July  of  181 8  from  Padang  to  Menang  Kabu,  the 
cradle  of  the  Malay  civilisation.  The  vessel  on  which 
Raffles  embarked  contained  the  collections  which  Dr 
Horsfield  had  brought  for  inspection.  Sir  Stamford 
seized  the  opportunity  to  '  inspect  so  many  of  the 
quadrupeds,  birds  and  insects,  as  well  as  of  the  botani- 
cal and  geological  specimens,  as  enabled  him  to  form 
an  adequate  estimate  of  the  extent  of  the  collection 
in  these  departments,  and  of  the  state  of  its  preserva- 
tion. He  likewise  examined  the  drawings,  maps  and 
manuscripts  with  patient  attention,  and  was  therefore 
enabled  subsequently  to  describe  the  whole  from 
personal  inspection.'  'In  natural  history,'  Horsfield 
notes,  '  he  had  resolved  not  to  rest  satisfied  in  patronis- 
ing the  labours  of  others,  but  likewise  to  afford  his 
personal  co-operation.'  Of  the  subsequent  journey 
Raffles  wrote  : — '  For  the  first  part  of  the  road  we 
proceeded  on  horseback,  but  were  soon  obliged  to 
dismount.  We  had  scarcely  passed  the  bazaar  of 
Padang,  when  we  had  to  swim  our  horses  across  a 
rapid  stream,  and,  in  the  course  of  three  hours,  we 
had  successively  to  cross  at  least  twenty  streams  of 
the  kind.  Over  some  we  were  carried  in  small 
canoes,  over  others  we  were  borne  on  men's  backs, 
and  through  some  we  boldly  waded,  for  it  was  im- 
possible to  think  of  remaining  free  from  wet.  At 
length  we  struck  across  the  country  to  the  northward, 
over  a  fine  plain  of  rice  fields,  which,  fortunately  for 
us,  were  not  in  a  state  of  cultivation.  .  .  .  Although 
we   had   been   four   hours  on    the    road,   we    did    not 


2o6       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

estimate  our  distance  from  Padang  in  a  direct  line  as 
more  than  six  miles.  The  country  through  which 
we  had  passed  was  populous,  and  generally  well  culti- 
vated ;  many  herds  of  cattle  and  buffaloes  near  the 
road  ;  an  appearance  of  plenty  and  content  through- 
out ;  the  village  appearing  to  occupy  a  very  consider- 
able extent,  and  to  include  orchards  and  plantations  ot 
various  kinds.'  In  spite  of  a  warning  from  Dr  Hors- 
field,  who  doubted  'whether  in  favourable  weather 
she  could  come  on,  as,  in  many  places,  a  lady  cannot  he 
carried^  the  party  persevered,  and,  'the  violence  of 
the  current  having  abated,  found  the  route  passable. 
The  ascent  was  very  moderate,  but  many  passages 
along  the  sides  of  slippery  rocks  very  unsafe.  We 
had  frequently  to  wade  across  the  stream,  and  con- 
tinually to  leap,  like  a  flock  of  goats,  from  rock  to 
rock.'  'Sat.,  July  i8. — Having  accomplished  our 
journey  thus  far  with  less  difficulty  than  we  were  at 
first  prepared  for,  we  set  out  this  morning  at  half- 
past  seven  in  high  spirits,  but  before  we  came  to  our 
resting-place  for  the  night  they  were  pretty  well 
exhausted;  for,  in  consequence  of  some  misapprehension 
in  the  party  which  had  gone  before  us,  we  had  to 
walk  nearly  twice  the  distance  we  had  calculated 
upon,  and  this  over  the  most  fatiguing  road,  with 
little  or  nothing  to  eat  or  to  drink.  From  the  place 
where  we  had  slept,  our  course  continued  up  the  bed 
of  the  river,  but  the  ascent  was  much  steeper,  and  the 
road  far  more  difficult  than  on  the  preceding  day. 
Rocks  piled  on  rocks,  in  sublime  confusion,  roaring 
cataracts   and    slippery    precipices    were    now    to    be 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  207 

surmounted.  .  .  .  The  night  was  extremely  dark  ; 
we  were  in  the  centre  of  a  deep  forest,  through  which 
the  twinkling  of  a  star  could  not  be  seen.  On  either 
side  of  us  were  steep  precipices  of  several  hundred 
feet ;  we  had  no  one  with  us  who  knew  the  road.  .  ,  . 
Our  abode  for  the  night  was  on  a  detached  hill  at 
the  verge  of  the  forest,  the  toll-post,  where  people  or 
all  ranks  were  indiscriminately  accommodated,  but  in 
which  we  found  as  substantial  comfort  and  repose  as 
we  could  have  desired  in  a  palace.' 

The  further  progress  of  the  party  was  somewhat 
impeded  by  the  attentions  of  the  native  chiefs,  the 
exuberance  of  whose  verbosity,  with  regard  to  the 
proposal  to  continue  the  journey,  could  only  be 
quenched  by  a  timely  douceur.  *  In  our  course,  our 
party  had  been  strengthened  until  it  amounted  to 
several  thousands — the  people  of  the  country  being 
collected  at  the  different  eminences  near  where  we 
passed  ;  they  welcomed  us  as  they  joined  the  throng 
by  the  most  discordant  howls  and  cheers,  which  can 
be  well  conceived.  Arrived  at  the  market,  they 
formed  an  extensive  circle  several  rows  deep,  the 
front  row  squatting  ;  nearly  the  whole  were  armed 
with  spears,  and  among  them  were  some  women.  .  .  . 
Finding  ourselves  among  a  set  of  people  who  exhibited 
in  their  manners  so  much  of  the  savage,  we  deter- 
mined to  keep  our  party  close  together,  and  whenever 
any  general  movement  was  made,  to  call  in  the  aid  of 
the  drum  and  fife,  which  fortunately  we  had  brought 
with  us  ;  this  imperfect  music,  most  wretchedly  per- 
formed, seemed  to  have  a  great  effect  upon  the  people.' 


2o8       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Hitherto  the  journey  had  been  through  the  country 
occupied  by  the  Tigasblas  Cotas  or  Thirteen  Confederate 
Towns.  But  the  next  destination  was  the  Menangkabu 
country  in  which  Raffles  had  for  a  long  time  felt  great 
interest.  Here  were  found  inscriptions  in  the  real  Kawi 
character,  bearing  record  to  a  period  of  Hindu  dominion. 
'The  whole  country,  from  Pageruyong,  as  far  as 
the  eye  could  distinctly  trace,  was  one  continuous 
scene  of  cultivation,  interspersed  with  innumerable 
towns  and  villages,  shaded  by  the  cocoa-nut  and  other 
fruit  trees.  I  may  safely  say  that  this  view  equalled 
anything  I  ever  saw  in  Java ;  the  scenery  is  more 
majestic  and  grand,  population  equally  dense,  cultiva- 
tion equally  rich.  In  a  comparison  with  the  plain  of 
Matarem,  the  richest  part  of  Java,  I  think  it  would 
rise.  Here  then,  for  the  first  time,  was  I  able  to 
trace  the  source  of  that  power,  the  origin  of  that 
nation  so  extensively  scattered  over  the  Eastern 
Archipelago.'  ...  '  What  may  be  the  eventual  result 
of  this  journey  it  is  impossible  to  say.  In  natural 
history,  it  has  afforded  me  a  very  interesting  insight 
into  the  mineral  kingdom.  We  have  traced  the  junc- 
tion of  the  volcanic  with  the  primitive  series  ;  and,  by 
the  evidence  afforded  in  our  collections,  are  enabled  to 
estimate  the  mineral  resources  of  the  country.  In  the 
vegetable  kingdom  we  discovered  no  less  than  forty- 
one  plants,  which  appeared  to  Dr  Horsfield  entirely 
new,  and  certainly  not  contained  in  the  Flora  of  Java. 
The  different  elevations  above  the  sea  were  ascer- 
tained, some  by  barometrical,  others  by  trigonometri- 
cal observations.     The  latitudes  and  longitudes  fixed, 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  209 

partly  by  observation  and  partly  by  dead  reckoning. 
By  crossing  the  range  of  mountains  at  different  passes 
we  clearly  ascertained  that  there  are  three  ridges, 
the  central  being  the  highest.  The  discovery  of  an 
extensively  populous  and  highly  agricultural  country 
cannot  fail  to  be  interesting.  On  a  moderate  calcu- 
lation, the  population  within  a  range  of  fifty  miles 
round  Pageruyong  cannot  be  estimated  at  less  than  a 
million  ;  by  the  returns  I  received  on  the  spot,  the 
number  appears  more  considerable.  .  .  .  Politically  the 
greatest  results  may  accrue.  At  no  very  distant  date 
the  sovereignty  of  Menangkabu  was  acknowledged 
over  the  whole  of  Sumatra,  and  its  influence  extended 
to  many  of  the  neighbouring  islands ;  the  respect  still 
paid  to  its  princes  by  all  ranks  amounts  almost  to 
veneration.  By  upholding  their  authority,  a  central 
government  may  easily  be  established ;  and  the 
numerous  petty  states,  now  disunited  and  barbarous, 
may  be  connected  into  one  general  system  of  govern- 
ment. The  rivers,  which  fall  into  the  Eastern  Archi- 
pelago, may  again  become  the  high  roads  to  and  from 
the  central  capital ;  and  Sumatra,  under  British  influ- 
ence, again  rise  into  great  political  importance.' 

It  must  be  remembered  that  all  this  took  place 
before  the  foundation  of  Singapore.  Alas  !  these 
political  aspirations  were  not  more  delusive  than 
were  the  hopes  of  domestic  happiness  held  out  by 
the  first  years  at  Bencoolen.  A  son  and  heir  had 
been  born  at  Penang,  while  Raffles  himself  was 
occupied  with  the  birth-throes  of  Singapore,  but,  in 
spite  of  the  inconvenience  and  risk  of  such  an  accouche- 


2IO        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

ment^  mother  and  son  had  thrived  satisfactorily.  The 
eldest  born  girl  had  been  well  enough,  but  Leopold, 
when  about  two  years  old,  is  *  the  handsomest  and  the 
most  princely  little  fellow  that  ever  lived.'  Another 
son,  who  went  by  the  name  of  Cooksey,  was  born  in 
1820,  but  he,  when  less  than  a  year  old,  though 
'  good-natured  as  any  creature  can  be,'  had  '  not 
half  expression  enough.'  A  second  girl,  Ella,  was 
born  in  June  1821.  But  then  the  blow  fell.  *Our 
house  of  joy,'  Raffles  wrote  on  June  28,  1821,  'has 
been  changed  into  a  house  of  mourning,  and  on  the 
very  day  we  fixed  for  the  christening  of  our  last  little 
one,'  Leopold  died,  after  an  illness  of  less  than  twenty 
hours.  'My  whole  soul  was  wrapped  up  in  him. 
The  other  children  were  nothing  in  the  scale  com- 
pared to  him.'  The  mortality  among  those  near  to 
him  was  so  great  that  Raffles  almost  dreaded  '  to  open 
a  letter,  or  to  look  round  me.'  The  series  of  sorrows 
had  begun  with  the  death  of  a  brother  of  Lady  Raffles, 
in  October  1820,  and  continued  throughout  the  next 
year.  In  October  1821  Raffles  writes  of  another 
death.  '  I  hope  this  is  the  last  of  our  misfortunes.' 
But  there  was  more  in  store.  '  The  last  and  remain- 
ing boy'  died  on  January  3,  1822,  and  Charlotte  did 
not  survive  him  another  fortnight.  'I  can  say  no 
more,'  Raffles  writes  to  his  sister.  '  God's  will  be 
done.'  One  child  only  was  now  left,  who  was 
despatched  to  England  as  soon  as  possible.  Her 
health  was  never  good,  and  she  died  under  the  age  of 
twenty. 

No    wonder    that    being    thus    sated    with    death, 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  211 

overwhelmed  as  they  were  with  grief,  Sir  Stamford 
RafRes  and  his  wife  hardly  survived  the  strain  put 
upon  them.  '  I  have  been  desperately  ill,'  Raffles 
wrote  in  February  1822,  'and  confined  to  a  dark 
room  the  last  ten  days,  but,  thank  God,  I  am  better. 
I  dare  not  write  much.'  He  had  been  confined  to 
his  room  '  by  a  severe  fever,  which  fell  on  the  brain 
and  drove  me  almost  to  madness.'  '  Lady  Raffles  has 
in  point  of  health  showed  better  than  myself,  but  she 
is  miserably  reduced  and  lowered.'  In  these  circum- 
stances, Bencoolen  and  its  surroundings  wore  a  very 
different  appearance  from  the  one  which  they  had 
assumed  in  the  full  flush  of  health  and  happiness. 
'  How  different  are  these  communications  to  those  I 
was  so  happy  as  to  make  during  our  first  three  years' 
residence  !  We  were  then  perhaps  too  happy,  and 
prided  ourselves  too  highly  on  future  prospects.  It 
has  pleased  God  to  blight  our  hopes,  and  we  must 
now  lower  our  expectations  more  to  the  standard  of 
the  ordinary  lot  of  human  nature.  God's  will  be 
done. 

'AH  our  thoughts  and  all  our  wishes  are  now 
turned  homewards.  Sometimes  the  prospect  is 
bright,  and  the  heart  expands  in  the  contempla- 
tion ;  at  others,  dark  clouds  intervene,  and  the 
dread  of  meeting  old  friends  with  new  faces  and 
colder  hearts  chills  every  feeling  of  pleasure.  For 
ourselves,  I  can  only  say  that  with  every  remove 
we  have  dragged  a  lengthened  chain ;  and  that 
our  attachments  and  affections  have  only  warmed 
and  increased  in  the   ratio  of  the  distance  to  which 


2  12       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

we  have  been  driven  and  the  time  vi^e  have  been 
banished.  .  .  .  Lady  Raffles  prays  you  to  excuse 
her  ;  since  the  loss  of  my  dear  Leopold,  she  has 
never  dared  to  take  pen  in  her  hand.  In  a  day 
or  two  we  shall  be  left  without  a  single  child  ! 
What  a  change  !  we  who  had  recently  had  a  round 
and  happy  circle.  All  our  fears  were  once  that 
we  should  have  too  many  ;  all  our  cares  are  now 
to  preserve  one,  our  only  one  :  I  cannot  say  any 
more  ;    my  heart  is  sick  and  nigh  broken.' 

Our  hero's  nature,  however,  was  not  one  to 
yield  to  misfortune.  '  I  am  not  one  of  that  "  Satanic 
School "  who  look  upon  this  world  as  the  hell  of 
some  former  and  past  creation,  but  am  content  to 
take  it  as  I  find  it,  firmly  believing  from  all  I  have 
known  and  seen  that  whatever  is,  is  for  our  good 
and  happiness,  and  that  there  is  actually  more  of 
both  even  in  this  world  than  in  our  consciences 
we  can  think  we  have  deserved  .  .  .  deaths  are  of 
daily  occurrence  in  our  small  circle  ;  but,  notwith- 
standing this,  we  still  look  up  ;  therefore,  with  the 
blessing  of  God,  don't  despair  of  seeing  us  in  1824' 
(July  25,  1822). 

A  remarkable  feature  in  Sir  Stamford's  character 
was  the  way  in  which  both  in  weal  and  in  woe  he 
did  not  allow  himself  to  become  absorbed  in  his 
own  immediate  concerns,  but  was  always  ready 
to  show  sympathy  for  the  interests  of  others.  No 
father  could  be  more  careful  on  behalf  of  a  son 
than  was  Raffles  on  behalf  of  his  brother-in-law, 
Captain  Flint.      He    had     obtained    for    him    an    ap- 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  213 

pointment  as  head  of  the  customs  at  Singapore. 
Flint,  a  downright  and  honest  sailor,  found  it  often 
difficult  to  accommodate  himself  to  the  humours 
of  his  Chief,  Major  Farquhar.  Again  and  again 
Sir  Stamford  counsels  prudence.  '  Tell  Flint,' 
he  writes  (February  11,  1822),  'that  if  he  keeps  his 
temper  he  may  be  right,  but  if  he  loses  it  he  must 
be  wrong.'  '  My  wish  is,'  Raffles  wrote  to  his 
sister  on  the  eve  of  his  return  to  England,  '  that 
you  should  consider  yourselves  as  still  under  my 
protection.  I  have  not  deserted  Singapore,  and 
never  will,  and  perhaps  some  day,  when  you  least 
expect  it,  better  luck  may  happen  to  the  place  than 
any  of  you  dream  of.'  In  this  spirit  Sir  Stamford 
and  Lady  Raffles  took  home  the  Flint's  only  son, 
who  was  considered  by  them  as  their  own  child, 
and  found,  on  the  death  of  his  own  parents,  in  Lady 
Raffles  a  second  mother. 

It  is  necessary  to  lay  emphasis  upon  this  side  of 
Raffles's  nature  because  it  accounts  for  what  other- 
wise would  jar  upon  the  impartial  student  of  his 
life  and  proceedings,  viz.,  the  persistent  manner 
in  which  he  was  always  pressing  money  claims 
upon  the  East  India  Company.  We  have  had 
enough  of  this  already,  but  it  may  be  noticed  that 
Raffles  took  advantage  of  the  temper  of  the  Directors 
appearing  more  favourable  to  claim  the  difference 
between  the  actual  value  of  the  currency  received 
for  salary  at  Java  and  the  amount  it  would  have 
been  in  Spanish  dollars,  and  again  to  urge  the 
demand    that    his   salary    as    Resident    at    Bencoolen 


2  14       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

should  begin  from  the  date  of  his  being  relieved  of 
the  government  of  Java,  instead  of  from  the  date 
when  he  actually  assumed  the  government.  In 
neither  of  these  claims  w^as  he  successful.  The  first 
the  Company  held  to  be  res  judicata.  To  the  second 
the  literal  text  of  his  appointment  barred  the  way. 
Whatever  our  opinion  of  all  this,  at  least  it  must 
be  remembered  that  in  this  case  the  workman  was 
worthy  of  his  hire,  and  that  the  hire  was  intended 
for  no  ip-noble  use. 


CHAPTER     XIII 

SINGAPORE    REVISITED    ( 1 822-23) 

Colonel  Farquhar — Mistakes  of  Resident — Measures  of  Reform — 
Foundation  of  Singapore  Institute — Abolition  of  Slavery — 
Final  Departure. 

Sir  Stamford  Raffles  returned  to  Singapore  in 
October  1822  with  mixed  feelings  of  pleasure  and 
disappointment.  Upon  the  one  hand  his  '  child '  had 
thrived  more  even  than  he  himself  anticipated.  As 
early  as  the  end  of  March  1820,  Colonel  Farquhar 
had  been  able  to  write  : — '  Nothing  can  possibly  ex- 
ceed the  rising  trade  and  general  prosperity  of  this 
infant  colony ;  indeed,  to  look  at  our  harbour  just 
now  ...  a  person  would  naturally  exclaim,  surely 
this  cannot  be  an  establishment  of  only  twelve 
months'  standing  !  .  .  .  In  short,  the  settlement 
bids  fair  to  become  the  emporium  of  Eastern  trade, 
and  in  time  may  surpass  even  Batavia  itself  ;  and, 
assuredly,  in  the  last  two  years'  progress  had  been 
no  less  rapid.  Upon  the  other  hand,  the  behaviour 
of  the  Resident  himself  gave  grave  cause  for  dissatis- 
faction. 'We  landed  yesterday,'  Raffles  wrote  on 
October  11,  'and  I  have  once  more  established  my 
headquarters  in  the  centre  of  my  Malayan  friends. 
The    coldest    and  most    disinterested  could   not  quit 

Bencoolen    and    land    at     Singapore    without     sur- 
215 


2i6        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

prise  and  emotion.  What,  then,  must  have  been 
my  feelings,  after  the  loss  of  almost  everything  that 
was  dear  to  me  on  that  ill-fated  coast,  after  all  the 
risks  and  dangers  to  vi^hich  this  my  almost  only 
child  had  been  exposed,  to  find  it  grow^n  and 
advanced  beyond  all  measure,  and  even  my  w^armest 
anticipations  and  expectations,  in  importance,  vi^ealth 
and  interest — in  everything  that  can  give  it  value 
and  permanence  ?  Rob  me  not  of  this,  my  political 
child,  and  you  may  yet  see  me  at  home  in  all  my 
wonted  spirits,  and  with  an  elasticity  about  me  which 
will  bear  me  up  against  all  that  party  spirit  can  do 
to  depress  me.' 

But  while  the  progress  of  the  new  settlement  was 
in  every  way  most  satisfactory,  such  progress  had 
been  by  no  means  due  to  the  Resident.  The  cir- 
cumstances in  which  Colonel  Farquhar  was  first 
appointed  have  been  already  stated.  At  first  it  was 
generally  understood  that  the  appointment  was  a 
temporary  one  ;  Colonel  Farquhar  being  anxious  to 
return  to  England.  As  Singapore  grew  in  import- 
ance, the  views  of  its  Resident  altered,  and,  at  the 
end  of  1820,  he  wrote  that,  'as  the  same  urgent  call 
no  longer  exists  for  my  proceeding  to  Europe  on 
furlough,  I  desire  to  postpone  departure  till  season  of 
1821-22.'  Meanwhile  Raffles  had  been  drawing  up 
a  new  scheme  of  administration,  under  which  Singa- 
pore should  be  made  directly  dependent  on  the 
Government  of  India,  and  the  salary  of  the  Resident 
reduced.  Mr  John  Crawfurd  was  to  succeed  Colonel 
Farquhar    in    the    government.      Colonel    Farquhar, 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  217 

however,  refused  to  state  the  time  of  his  departure, 
and  finally,  when  notified  that,  as  Mr  Crawfurd  was 
about  to  leave  Bengal,  '  his  temporary  and  dependent 
appointment  must  now  cease,'  set  Raffles  at  defiance, 
and  refused  to  recognise  his  authority.  In  this  state 
of  things  Raffles  had  no  alternative  but  to  supersede 
Farquhar,  and  take  upon  himself  provisionally  the 
administration  of  the  settlement.  It  is  true  that 
Raffles  was  censured  by  the  Supreme  Government 
for  taking  this  step,  *  which  nothing  but  a  real  and 
positive  necessity  could  justify,'  without  their  previous 
sanction,  but  when  can  a  real  and  positive  necessity 
exist  if  not  when  the  authority  of  a  superior  officer  has 
been  openly  set  at  defiance  ?  In  their  judgment  upon 
the  conduct  of  Farquhar,  the  Supreme  Government 
wrote  in  agreement  with  the  views  of  Raffles.  They 
considered  that  Farquhar's  '  measures  had  been  un- 
fortunate when  they  had  departed  from  your  instruc- 
tions.' These  measures  had  indeed  been  such  as  to 
justify  the  indignation  of  Raffles.  If  there  was  one 
cause  Sir  Stamford  had  at  heart,  it  was  the  suppression 
of  the  slave  trade,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  of  slavery. 
In  his  efforts  on  behalf  of  this  cause  he  had  more  than 
once  risked  the  criticisms  and  censures  of  his  superiors. 
He  had  given  no  special  instructions  with  regard  to 
the  slave  trade  to  Farquhar,  because  he  '  never  could 
have  supposed  that  a  British  officer  could  have 
tolerated  such  a  practice  in  a  settlement  circumstanced 
like  Singapore,  and  formed  after  the  promulgation  of 
the  Act  of  Parliament  declaring  it  felony.'  *  I  need 
therefore  say,'  he  continues,  in  his  reply  (dated  January 


2i8       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

25,  1825)  to  Colonel  Farquhar's  memorial,  'how 
much  I  was  shocked  in  hearing  the  cries  of  a  female, 
shortly  after  my  landing  in  Singapore  in  1822,  proceed 
from  a  vessel  in  the  river,  whose  principal  cargo  was 
female  slaves  for  the  market  of  Singapore.' 

We  have  seen  the  relentless  war  waged  by  Raffles 
in  Bencoolen  against  the  gaming  and  cocklighting 
establishments,  he  now  found  that  such  had  been 
established  at  Singapore  'contrary  to  the  most  express 
and  positive  orders  which '  Farquhar  had  received. 
Raffles  had  further  to  complain  of  '  irregularity  in 
the  construction  of  public  buildings  and  appropriation 
of  the  ground  expressly  reserved  for  public  purposes, 
for  the  benefit  of  a  few  favoured  individuals,  .  .  . 
whereby  the  whole  plan  and  order  of  things  directed 
on  the  first  establishment  of  the  settlement  was  so 
far  deranged  as  to  render  it  indispensable  that  his  pro- 
ceedings should  be  disavowed,  that  the  town  should 
be  removed,  and  that  the  whole  of  the  land  should 
be  resumed  at  great  expense  to  Government,  and  no 
less  loss  to  individuals.'  ^  Sir  Stamford's  disappoint- 
ment was  great.  '  I  had  anticipated,'  he  wrote  in  a 
despatch  dated  January  15,  1823,  '  the  satisfaction  of 
constructing  all  necessary  public  buildings  free  of 
expense  to  Government,  and  of  delivering  over  charge 
of  the  settlement  at  the  end  of  the  present  year  with 
an  available  revenue  nearly  equal  to  its  expenses,  and 
it  is  extremely  mortifying  that  the  irregularities 
admitted  by  the  last  Resident  oblige  me  to  forego 
this  arrangement.' 

'  See  Appendix,  p.  279. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  219 

But  if  there  was  this  reverse  side  to  the  shield,  upon 
the  whole  Raffles  had  good  reason  for  satisfaction. 
For  the  first  time  he  had  a  free  hand  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  some,  at  least,  of  his  ideals.  In  his 
local  laws  and  regulations,  and  especially  in  the  report 
on  the  Administration  of  Justice,  addressed  to  the 
Supreme  Government,  Sir  Stamford  anticipated  in 
a  remarkable  degree  the  views  of  later  times.  '  I 
am  satisfied,'  he  wrote,  '  that  nothing  has  tended  more 
to  the  discomfort  and  constant  jarrings,  which  have 
hitherto  occurred  in  our  remote  settlements,  than  the 
policy  which  has  dictated  the  exclusion  of  the  European 
merchants  from  all  share,  much  less  credit,  in  the 
domestic  regulation  of  the  settlement,  of  which  they 
are  frequently  its  most  important  members.  Some 
degree  of  legislative  power  must  necessarily  exist  in 
every  distant  dependency.  The  laws  of  the  mother 
country  cannot  be  commensurate  with  the  wants  of 
the  dependency  ;  she  has  wants  of  which  a  remote 
legislature  can  very  imperfectly  judge,  and  which  are 
sometimes  too  urgent  to  admit  the  delay  of  reference. 
Circumstanced  as  Singapore  is,  even  the  Governor- 
General  in  Council,  with  whom  the  legislative  power 
will  probably  rest,  is  hardly  competent  to  legislate  for 
such  a  state  without  the  assistance  of  local  advice. 
The  administration  of  the  settlement  is  necessarily 
limited  to  one  individual,  who,  having  no  Council, 
could  not  be  entrusted  with  the  enactment  of  laws 
which  require  deliberation  and  advice,  and  the  mode 
which  I  have  provided  seems  at  once  the  most  con- 
genial to  our  national  institutions,  the  most  simple  in 


220       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

its  adoption  and  application,  and  the  most  promising 
in  its  advantages  ;  at  the  same  time  that  neither  the 
Supreme  Government,  as  the  higher  legislative  author- 
ity, nor  the  local  Resident,  as  the  Governor  and 
Executive  Officer  of  the  state,  loses  any  of  the  powers 
or  attributes  properly  vested  in  him.  The  nomination 
of  magistrate  is  vested  in  him  ;  and  as  the  appoint- 
ment is  a  mark  of  respect  to  the  individual,  inasmuch 
as  the  exclusion  is  a  disgrace,  it  may  be  considered  as 
rather  extending  his  patronage  and  authority  than 
otherw^ise  '  (Despatch,  June  6,  1823). 

As  amended,  the  system  of  government  involved 
the  annual  selection  of  tw^elve  magistrates  from  among 
the  British  community.  Local  law^s  and  regulations 
were  to  be  enacted  by  and  with  the  advice  of  the 
magistracy.  Proposed  regulations  might  originate 
with  the  magistrates,  and  in  such  cases,  *  in  the  event 
of  a  difference  of  opinion  and  the  Resident  declining  to 
enact  the  proposed  regulation  within  three  months, 
the  magistrates  may  request  that  their  recommenda- 
tion be  transmitted  for  the  consideration  of  the 
Governor-General  in  Council.  Subordinate  to  the 
magistrates  there  shall  further  be  appointed  one  native 
captain  or  headman,  with  one  or  more  lieutenants 
or  assistants,  over  each  principal  class  of  the  native 
inhabitants,  who  will  be  invested  with  especial 
authority  over  such  class,  and  held  responsible  for  the 
general  conduct  of  the  same.' 

Upon  the  question  of  the  laws  to  be  administered, 
Raffles's  remarks  are  of  especial  value.  'The  popula- 
tion of  Singapore  jvill  probably  consist  of  a  mixture 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  221 

in  various  proportions  of  strangers,  from  all  parts  of 
the  world,  having  commercial  concerns  at  the  port, 
though  chiefly  of  Malays  and  Chinese  ;  and  it  would 
be  impracticable  for  any  judicial  authority  to  become 
perfectly  acquainted  with  the  laws  and  customs  having 
the  force  of  laws  acknowledged  in  their  own  countries 
respectively  by  the  varied  classes  of  so  mixed  a  popula- 
tion ;  and  it  would  be  still  more  so  to  attempt  to 
administer  these  in  such  a  manner  as  to  preserve  them 
inviolate,  even  in  the  mutual  intercourse  of  those 
classes  severally  amongst  themselves,  much  less  when 
justice  is  to  be  administered  between  two  persons  of 
different  classes.  It  is,  I  believe,  generally  admitted 
that,  in  colonies  formed  entirely  bv  Englishmen,  they 
naturally  carry  the  laws  of  their  country  with  them, 
subject  only  to  such  local  modifications  as  the  con- 
stitution of  the  colony  may  require  ;  but  nine-tenths 
of  the  population  of  Singapore  will  most  probably 
consist  of  Chinese  and  Malays,  and  the  restrictions  of 
the  legislature  may  for  many  years  operate  against  any 
considerable  extension  in  the  number  of  Englishmen.' 
Raffles  proceeds  to  give  by  actual  instances  the  strange 
results  that  would  ensue  were  the  criminal  law  to  be 
administered  according  to  native  notions.  His  general 
conclusion  was  'to  apply  the  general  principles  of 
British  law  to  all,  equally  and  alike,  without  distinction 
of  tribe  or  nation,  under  such  modifications  only  as 
local  circumstances  and  peculiarities,  and  a  due  con- 
sideration for  the  weaknesses  and  prejudices  of  the 
native  part  of  the  population,  may  from  time  to  time 
su2;gest.'      In   the  laneua^e  of  the   Proclamation   of 


222       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

June  26,  1823,  'nothing  seems  to  be  left  but  to  have 
recourse  to  first  principles  ;  to  use  every  precaution 
against  the  existence  of  temptation  to  crime  that  is 
found  consistent  with  the  perfect  liberty  of  those  who 
have  no  evil  intention  ;  and,  when  these  precautions 
fail,  to  secure  redress  to  the  injured  party,  if  possible, 
and  such  punishment  as  will  be  most  likely  to  prevent 
a  repetition  of  the  crime,  either  by  the  party  himself 
offending,  or  by  those  who  may  be  inclined  to  follow 
his  example.  Nothing  should  be  endured  in  the 
settlement,  however  sanctioned  by  the  local  usage 
of  particular  tribes  who  resort  to  it,  that  has  either 
a  direct  effect,  or  notoriously  strong  tendency  to 
endanger  the  safety  or  liberty  of  persons,  or  the 
security  of  property  ;  and  in  the  same  manner,  no 
want  of  what  are  considered  legal  formalities  in 
any  country  should  debar  a  person  from  having  sub- 
stantial justice  rendered  to  him,  so  that  legal  and  moral 
obligation  may  never  be  sundered.''  In  the  same  Procla- 
mation it  was  stated  : — 'The  imprisonment  of  an 
unfortunate  debtor  at  the  pleasure  of  the  creditor  .  .  . 
seems  objectionable  in  this  settlement  .  .  .  the  debtor 
should  only  be  liable  to  imprisonment  in  case  of  fraud, 
and  as  far  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  security  of  his 
person  in  the  event  of  his  not  being  able  to  find  bail 
during  the  process  of  the  Court,  and  for  the  performance 
of  the  decree  after  judgment  may  be  passed.  It  is 
well  known  that  the  Malay  race  are  sensibly  alive  to 
shame,  and  that  in  many  instances  they  would  prefer 
death  to  ignominy.  This  is  a  high  and  honourable 
feeling,  and  ought  to  be   cherished.     Let  great  care 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  223 

be  taken  to  avoid  all  punishments  which  are  un- 
necessarily degrading.  .  .  .  Let  no  man  be  punished 
without  a  reason  assigned.  .  .  .  Let  native  institutions 
so  far  as  regards  religious  observances,  marriage,  and 
inheritance  be  respected,  when  the  same  may  not  be 
inconsistent  with  justice  and  humanity,  or  injurious 
to  the  peace  and  morals  of  society.  Let  all  men  be 
considered  equal  in  the  eye  of  the  law.  Let  no  man 
be  banished  the  country  without  a  trial  by  his  peers 
or  by  due  course  of  law.  Let  no  man  be  deprived  of 
his  liberty  without  a  cause,  and  no  man  be  detained 
in  confinement  beyond  forty-eight  hours  without  a 
ri2:ht  to  demand  a  hearino-  and  trial  accordina;  to  due 
course  of  law.  Let  the  public  have  a  voice  through 
the  magistracy,  by  which  their  sentiments  may  at  all 
times  be  freely  expressed.'  When  it  is  remembered 
that  these  rules  were  drawn  up  for  an  Oriental  de- 
pendency nine  years  before  the  first  Reform  Bill,  it 
will  be  recognised  that  Raffles  was  far  in  advance  of 
the  time  in  which  he  lived. 

In  one  respect  Singapore  did  not  offer  a  very  suit- 
able field  for  the  working  out  of  Raffles's  ideas.  He 
believed  that  the  only  principle  upon  which  the  future 
administration  of  a  country  could  be  rendered  simple 
and  advantageous,  both  to  the  interests  of  the  people 
and  of  the  East  India  Company,  was  that  of  gradually 
raising  into  importance  such  of  the  native  chiefs  as 
from  rank  and  character  might  be  entrusted  with 
authority,  but  no  native  could  ever  superintend  the 
multifarious  needs  of  a  polyglot  commercial  station 
such    as    Singapore.      What     Raffles    could    do    by 


224-       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

associating  the  Sultan  and  the  Tumung'gung  with 
the  Resident  in  the  administration  of  the  criminal 
law  he  did  ;  but  beyond  this  it  was  impossible  to  go. 
The  methods  which  had  been  suitable  enough  in  Java 
and  Sumatra  were  wholly  inapplicable  to  the  case  of 
a  single  city  like  Singapore.  Here  again,  however, 
time  has  justified  the  wisdom  of  Raffles's  general 
principles,  and  the  government  of  the  Malay 
Federated  States,  as  it  exists  to-day,  represents 
exactly   the   ideal   to  which   Raffles  was  pointing. 

In  one  important  respect  Raffles  was  able  to 
realise  his  hopes,  and  the  port  of  Singapore  became 
*  a  free  port,  the  trade  thereof  open  to  ships  and 
vessels  of  every  nation  free  of  duty,  equally  and 
alike  to  all.' 

Another  scheme  of  Raffles's  could  now  be  carried 
out.  Our  friend  Abdulla  tells  us  how,  when  the  pre- 
parations were  being  made  for  the  Java  Expedition, 
he  had  accompanied  Raffles  on  a  visit  to  a  school 
for  Malay  boys.  Raffles  'asked  why  the  school- 
master did  not  teach  Malay.  To  this  the  school- 
master replied,  "It  is  the  boys'  own  fathers  that  have 
ordered  me  to  teach  the  Koran  first  ;  and,  when 
they  have  completed  this,  they  can  then  commence 
Malay.  This  is  our  custom.  Further,  it  is  not  the 
custom  of  this  place  to  maintain  a  school  for  the 
Malay  language."  Then  said  Mr  Raffles,  "Very 
good,  O  master  !  I  want  to  know  only.  Don't 
be  angry  with  me."  So  he  said  good-bye,  and  went 
out.  And  as  he  was  going  he  said  to  me,  "Is  this 
truly  the  custom  of  the  Malays  ?  "    To  this  I  replied. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  225 

"True,  sir."  He  then  smiled,  and  said,  "If  I  live 
I  shall  have  a  school  set  agoing  for  teaching  Malay. 
I  am  most  anxious  about  this,  as  it  is  a  beautiful 
language  ;  further,  it  is  of  great  utility." ' 

The  time   had   now^   come  for  this  promise  to   be 
made  good.     According   to  Abdulla,   the  immediate 
cause   of  the    Singapore  Institute   lay   in    the   refusal 
of    the    Sultan    and    the    Tumung'gung    to    accept 
Raffles's    offer    that    their    sons    should    be    sent    for 
education   to   Calcutta,  but,  in   fact,  the  u^hole  plan 
of    the    college    had     been     sketched     out     in     the 
memorable  Minute  of  18 19  dealt  v^^ith  below.     The 
starting   of  the   Institute    is    best    told    in    Abdulla's 
words : — *  About   one   month    after   this    the    Sultan, 
Tumung'gung    and    all    the    leading    men    of    the 
Europeans    w^ere    invited    to    the    house   of  Colonel 
Farquhar,    where    they    assembled    at     ten    in     the 
morning,  none  knowing  the  object  of  their  coming 
together.      After     all    had    assembled,    Mr     Raffles 
entered,  first  paying  his  respects  to  the  Sultan  and 
Tumung'gung,  seating  them  on  either  side  of  him- 
self.     Then    addressing    the    Sultan,   he   said,   "Oh! 
Sultan,   Tumung'gung,    and    all    ye    gentlemen    here 
gathered  together,  I  have  a  desire  to  give  effect  to, 
to  wit,  an  undertaking  of  the  greatest  utility  to  this 
and   to   future   generations ;    for  to-day   we   live   that 
we  may  die  and  then  pass  away.     Now,  if  we  can 
show  good  deeds,  we  are  named   as   good   hereafter, 
and  if  bad,  so  accordingly.     Now,  while  we  have  the 
opportunity,  let   us   make    a    good    name    for  future 
generations.     Now,  what  I  desire  to  do  is  to  erect 


2  26       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

an  edifice  in  which  all  races  can  be  taught,  each  in 
their  own  language  and  by  their  own  schoolmasters, 
in  all  knowledge  which  pertains  to  true  intelligence, 
such  as   may    be  imparted    to   each    and    every    one, 
saving  and  excepting  such  as  affects  faith  ;  confining 
the    institution    to    languages,    writing,    arithmetic, 
astronomy,     geography,     etc.       But      my      greatest 
anxiety   is    to   advance  the  Malays,  by   easy  degrees, 
in    their    own    language  ;    otherwise    let   each    race 
have  its  assigned  place,  and  all  this  without  expense, 
but    let    the    teaching   be   gratuitous.      The   country 
will    increase    in   population   in   time,  so   if  there  be 
such   an   institute,  its   fame  will  spread   to  all   races. 
What  do  you,  gentlemen,   think  of  my  proposition, 
is  it  good  or  not  ?  "     The  Sultan  and  Tumung'gung 
replied   that   the   proposition   was    excellent,  as    their 
children  would  thus  be  enabled  to  obtain   instruction. 
All   the    European    gentlemen    also    expressed   them- 
selves as  approving  of  the  scheme.     Then  said   Mr 
Raffles,  "  Let   us  settle   the  matter  by  subscribing  to 
the    erection    of  the    edifice."      To    this   all    replied 
assenting.     On   this  Mr   Raffles  took  pen  and  paper 
and,  by  way  of  precedence  to  the   East  India  Com- 
pany, he  wrote  down  two  thousand   dollars,  himself 
adding  from  his  private  purse  the  same  sum.     Then 
he  asked,  with  a  smile,  what  the  Sultan  would  give. 
"  Shall  it  be  two  thousand  also  ?  "    But  he  replied  with 
a  loud  exclamation,  and  a  laugh,  that  he  was  a  poor 
man,  so  where   would  he  get  two  thousand  dollars  ? 
To  this  Mr  Raffles  argued  that  he  should  give  more 
than   he   (Raffles)    gave,   as   the  undertaking    was  of 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  227 

immediate  utility  to  the  Malays,  and  greatly  more 
so  than  to  the  English,  but  let  it  be  one 
thousand  dollars.  Then  he  asked  the  Tumung'- 
gung  to  give  one  thousand  dollars,  Colonel 
Farquhar  the  same,  Dr  Martin  two  hundred,  and 
Lady  Raffles  two  hundred.  After  this  the  various 
English  gentlemen  gave  their  quota,  the  w^hole 
amounting  to  seventeen  thousand  five  hundred 
Spanish   dollars.' 

In  the  powerful  Minute  by  Raffles  on  the 
establishment  of  a  Malay  college  at  Singapore, 
perhaps  the  most  eloquent  of  all  his  writings,  he 
wrote  : — '  The  acquisitions  of  Great  Britain  in  the 
East  have  not  been  made  in  the  spirit  of  conquest ; 
a  concurrence  of  circumstances  not  to  be  controlled, 
and  the  energies  of  her  sons,  have  carried  her 
forward  on  the  tide  whose  impulse  has  been 
irresistible.  Other  nations  may  have  pursued  the 
same  course  of  conquest  and  success,  but  they 
have  not,  like  her,  paused  in  their  career  and,  by 
moderation  and  justice,  consolidated  what  they  had 
gained.  This  is  the  rock  on  which  her  Indian 
Empire  is  placed  ;  and  it  is  on  a  perseverance  in 
the  principles  which  have  already  guided  her  that 
she  must  depend  for  maintaining  her  commanding 
station,  and  for  saving  her  from  adding  one  more 
to  the  list  of  those  who  have  contended  for 
empire  and  have  sunk  beneath  the  weight  of  their 
own  ambition.  Conquest  has  led  to  conquest,  and 
our  influence  must  continue  to  extend  :  the  tide  has 
received  its  impetus  and  it  will  be  in  vain  to  attempt 


228       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

to  stem  its  current,  but  let  the  same  principles  be 
kept  in  view,  let  our  minds  and  policies  expand  with 
our  Empire,  and  it  will  not  only  be  the  greatest 
but  the  firmest  and  most  enduring  that  has  yet  been 
held  forth  to  the  views  and  admiration  of  the  world. 
While  we  raise  those  in  a  scale  of  civilisation  over 
whom  our  influence  or  empire  is  extended,  we 
shall  lay  the  foundations  of  our  dominion  on  the 
firm  basis  of  justice  and  mutual  advantage,  instead 
of  the  uncertain  and  unsubstantial  tenure  of  force 
and  intrigue.  .  .  .  Recent  events  have  directed  our 
attention  to  .  .  .  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  where 
a  vast  field  of  commercial  speculation  has  been 
opened,  the  limits  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  foresee. 
A  variety  of  circumstances  have  concurred  to  extend 
our  connections  in  this  quarter,  and  later  arrange- 
ments, by  giving  them  a  consistency  and  consolidation 
and  uniting  them  more  closely  with  our  best  interests 
both  in  India  and  Europe,  have  added  much  to  their 
importance  and  consideration.  Our  connection  with 
them,  however,  stands  on  a  very  different  footing 
from  that  with  the  people  of  India.  However  in- 
viting and  extensive  their  resources,  it  is  considered 
that  they  can  be  best  drawn  forth  by  the  native 
energies  of  the  people  themselves,  uninfluenced  by 
foreign  rule,  and  unfettered  by  foreign  regulations, 
and  that  it  is  by  the  reciprocal  advantage  of 
commerce,  and  commerce  alone,  that  we  may  best 
promote  our  own  interests  and  their  advancement. 
A  few  stations  are  occupied  for  the  security  and 
protection   of  our  trade,  and  the  independence  of  all 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  229 

the  surrounding  states  is  not  only  acknowledged,  but 
maintained  and  supported  by  us. 

'  Commerce  being,  therefore,  the  principle  on  which 
our  connection  with  the  Eastern  States  is  formed,  it 
behoves  us  to  consider  the  effects  which  it  is  cal- 
culated to  produce.  .  .  .  Education  must  keep  pace 
with  commerce  in  order  that  its  benefits  may  be 
ensured  and  its  evils  avoided  ;  and  in  our  connection 
with  these  countries  it  shall  be  our  care  that,  while 
with  one  hand  we  carry  to  their  shores  the  capital  of 
our  merchants,  the  other  shall  be  stretched  forth  to 
oiJer  them  the  means  of  intellectual  improvement.' 

After  an  exhaustive  analysis  of  the  Malay  char- 
acter. Raffles  proceeds  to  dwell  upon  the  probability 
of  a  great  Chinese  immigration.  '  Borneo  and  the 
Eastern  Islands  may  become  to  China  what  America 
is  already  to  the  nations  of  Europe.'  For  the 
purposes  of  the  study  of  the  various  races,  Singapore 
offered  unrivalled  advantages.  *  Placed  as  we  shall 
be  in  the  very  centre  of  the  Archipelago,  the  life  and 
soul  of  its  extensive  commerce,  and  maintaining  with 
its  most  distant  parts  and  with  the  adjacent  continent 
a  constant  and  rapidly-increasing  intercourse,  the 
means  are  afforded  to  us,  above  all  other  nations,  of 
prosecuting  these  studies  with  facility  and  advantage. 
.  .  .  The  object  of  our  stations  being  confined  to 
the  protection  and  encouragement  of  a  free  and  un- 
restricted commerce  with  the  whole  of  these  countries, 
and  our  establishments  beinp;  on  this  footing  and 
principle,  no  jealousy  can  exist  where  we  make  our 
inquiries.  .   .   .       There    is    nothing,    perhaps,    which 


230       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

distinguishes  the  character  of  these  islanders  from  the 
people  of  India  more  than  the  absence  of  inveterate 
prejudice  and  the  little  influence  Mohammedanism 
has  had  over  their  conduct  and  mode  of  thinking.  .  .  , 
The  inducements  and  facilities  w^hich  are  thus 
afforded  suggest  the  advantage  and  necessity  of 
forming,  under  the  immediate  control  and  superin- 
tendence of  Government,  an  institution  of  the  nature 
of  a  native  college,  which  shall  embrace  not  only  the 
object  of  educating  the  higher  classes  of  the  native 
population,  but  at  the  same  time  that  of  affording 
instruction  to  the  officers  of  the  Company  in  the 
native  languages,  and  of  facilitating  our  more  general 
researches  into  the  history,  condition  and  resources 
of  these  countries. 

'  An  institution  of  this  kind,  formed  on  a  simple  but 
respectable  plan,  vi'ould  be  hailed  w^ith  satisfaction  by 
the  native  chiefs,  v^^ho,  as  far  as  their  immediate 
means  admit,  may  be  expected  to  contribute  to  its 
support,  and  a  class  of  intelligent  natives,  who  would 
be  employed  as  teachers,  would  always  be  at  the 
command  and  disposal  of  Government.  The  want  of 
such  a  class  of  men  has  long  been  felt,  and  is  perhaps 
in  a  considerable  degree  owing  to  the  absence  of  any 
centre  or  seat  of  learning  to  which  they  could  resort. 
The  position  and  circumstance  of  Singapore  point  it 
out  as  the  most  eligible  situation  for  such  an  establish- 
ment. Its  central  situation  among  the  Malay  States, 
and  the  commanding  influence  of  its  commerce, 
render  it  a  place  of  general  and  convenient  resort, 
while   in   the   minds  of  the  natives  it  will  always  be 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  231 

associated  with  their  fondest  recollections  as  the  seat 
of  their  ancient  government  before  the  influence  of  a 
foreign  faith  had  shaken  those  institutions  for  which 
they  still  preserve  so  high  an  attachment  and  rever- 
ence. The  advantage  of  selecting  a  place  thus 
hallowed  by  the  ideas  of  a  remote  antiquity,  and  the 
veneration  attached  to  its  ancient  line  of  kings  must 
be  obvious.' 

The  object  of  the  proposed  college  would  be  three- 
fold. Educationally  it  would  minister  to  the  wants 
both  of  the  native  youth  and  of  the  English  civil 
servants  ;  while,  on  the  side  of  research,  it  would  serve 
as  a  centre  for  all  studies  connected  with  the  Malay 
race. 

The  conclusion  of  the  Minute  ran  as  follows  : — 
'  The  object  at  present  has  been  with  the  least  pre- 
tension to  commence  an  institution  which  shall  con- 
tinue to  grow  and  extend  itself  in  proportion  to  the 
benefit  it  affords.  A  situation  has  been  chosen,  the 
most  advantageous  for  this  purpose,  from  whence,  as  a 
centre,  its  influence  may  be  diffused,  and  its  sphere 
generally  extended,  until  it,  at  length,  embraces  even 
the  whole  of  that  wide  field  whose  nature  has  already 
been  shown.  That  it  will  spread  may  be  considered 
almost  beyond  a  doubt.  We  know  the  readiness  and 
aptness  of  the  people  to  receive  instruction,  we  know 
that  they  have  had  similar  institutions  of  their  own  in 
happier  and  more  prosperous  times,  and  that  they  now 
lament  the  want  of  them  as  not  the  smallest  of  the 
evils  that  have  attended  the  fall  of  this  power.  It  is 
to  Britain  alone  that  they  can  look  for  the  restoration 


232       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

of  these  advantages ;  she  is  now  called  upon  to  lay 
the  foundation-stone,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that, 
this  once  done,  the  people  will  largely  themselves 
contribute  to  rearing  and  completing  the  edifice. 

'  But  it  is  not  to  remote  and  speculative  advantages 
that  the  effect  of  such  an  institution  will  be  confined. 
While  the  enlightened  philanthropist  will  dwell  with 
pleasure  on  that  part  of  the  prospect,  the  immediate 
advantages  will  be  found  fully  proportionate.  To 
afford  the  means  of  instruction  in  the  native  languages 
to  those  who  are  to  administer  our  affairs  and  to  watch 
over  our  interests  in  such  extensive  regions  is  surely  no 
trifling  or  unimportant  object.  In  promoting  the  in- 
terests of  literature  and  science,  not  less  will  be  its  effect. 
In  Bengal,  where  inquiries  into  the  literature,  history 
and  customs  of  Oriental  nations  have  been  prosecuted 
with  such  success  and  attended  with  such  important 
results,  such  an  institution  will  prove  a  powerful 
auxiliary  in  extending  these  inquiries  among  the 
people  of  the  Further  East.  Many  of  the  researches 
already  begun  can  only  be  perfected  and  completed  on 
this  soil,  and  they  will  be  forwarded  on  the  present 
plan  by  collecting  the  scattered  remains  of  the  literature 
of  their  countries,  by  calling  forth  the  literary  spirit  of 
the  people  and  awaking  its  dormant  energies.  The 
range  of  intellect  now  divided  and  lost  will  be  con- 
centrated into  a  focus,  from  whence'  they  will  be  again 
radiated  with  added  lustre,  enlightened  and  strengthened 
by  our  superior  lights.  Thus  will  our  stations  become 
not  only  the  centres  of  commerce  and  its  luxuries, 
but   of  refinement    and    the  liberal    arts.       If  com- 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  233 

merce  brings  wealth  to  our  shores,  it  is  the  spirit 
of  literature  and  philanthropy  that  teaches  us  how 
to  employ  it  for  the  noblest  purposes.  It  is  this 
that  has  made  Britain  go  forth  among  the  nations, 
strong  in  her  native  might,  to  dispense  blessings 
to  all  around  her.  If  the  time  shall  come  when 
her  Empire  shall  have  passed  away,  these  monu- 
ments of  her  virtue  will  endure  when  her  triumphs 
have  become  an  empty  name.  Let  it  still  be  the 
boast  of  Britain  to  write  her  name  in  characters 
of  light  ;  let  her  not  be  remembered  as  the  tempest 
whose  course  was  desolation,  but  as  the  gale  of  spring, 
reviving  the  slumbering  seeds  of  mind,  and  calling 
them  to  life  from  the  winter  of  oppression.  Let 
the  sun  of  Britain  arise  on  these  islands  not  to 
wither  and  scorch  them  in  its  fierceness,  but  like 
that  of  her  own  genial  skies,  whose  mild  and  be- 
nignant influence  is  hailed  and  blessed  by  all  who  feel 
its  rays.' 

Sir  Stamford  Raffles  left  Singapore  on  June  9,  1823. 
'  I  have  not,  as  you  may  suppose,'  he  wrote,  '  remained 
at  Singapore  eight  months  for  nothing  ;  two-thirds 
of  the  time  have  no  doubt  been  spent  in  pain  and 
annoyance  from  the  dreadful  headaches  I  am  doomed 
to  suffer  in  this  country,  but  the  remaining  third  has 
been  actively  employed.  I  have  had  everything  to 
new  mould  from  first  to  last — to  introduce  a  system 
of  energy,  purity  and  encouragement ;  to  remove 
nearly  all  the  inhabitants  and  to  resettle  them  ;  to 
line  out  towns,  streets  and  roads  ;  to  level  the  high 
and  fill  up   the  low  lands ;    to  give  property  in   the 


23+        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

soil  and  rights  to  the  people  ;  to  lay  down  principles 
and  sketch  institutions  for  the  domestic  order  and 
comfort  of  the  place  as  well  as  its  future  character 
and  importance  ;  to  look  for  a  century  or  two  before- 
hand, and  provide  for  what  Singapore  may  one  day 
become  by  the  adoption  of  all  such  measures  of 
forecast  as  reason  and  experience  can  suggest.' 

We  have  seen  the  indignation  aroused  in  Raffles 
by  Colonel  Farquhar's  toleration  of  the  slave  trade  ; 
he  now,  though  with  some  hesitation,  proceeded  a 
step  further,  and  exacted  the  abolition  of  slavery 
itself.^  Somewhat  arrogant  as  may  sound  the  tone 
of  our  hero's  statement  of  his  own  services,  there  can 
be  no  question  as  to  its  literal  accuracy.  '  To  look 
for  a  century  or  two  beforehand.'  In  the  scramble  of 
opportunist  statesmanship  how  seldom  is  such  an 
attempt  possible ;  how  rare,  when  the  opportunity 
does  offer,  is  the  prescience  which  can  read  the 
purport  of  the  knocking  of  the  coming  generations 
at  the  gate  !  We  are  indebted  to  our  friend  Abdulla 
for  a  graphic  description  of  the  final  departure  from 
Singapore.  '  Then  on  a  certain  day  Mr  Raffles  said 
to  me,  "I  intend  to  sail  in  three  days  hence,  so  collect 
all   my  Malay  books."     And  when  I  heard  this  my 

'  With  regard  to  slavery  generally  the  following  regulation  was 
enacted  : — 'As  the  condition  of  slavery,  under  any  denomination  what- 
ever, cannot  be  recognised  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  British 
authority,  all  persons  who  may  have  been  so  imported,  transferred  or 
sold  as  slaves  or  slave  debtors,  since  the  26th  day  of  February  1819,  are 
entitled  to  claim  their  freedom  on  application  to  the  magistrates  as 
hereafter  provided,  and  it  is  here  declared  that  no  individual  can  here- 
after be  imported  for  sale,  transferred  or  sold  as  a  slave  or  slave  debtor, 
or,  having  his  or  her  fixed  residence  under  the  protection  of  the  British 
authority,  can  be  hereafter  considered  or  treated  as  a  slave,  under  any 
denomination,  condition,  colour  or  pretence  whatever.' 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  235 

heart  palpitated  and  my  spirit  was  gone,  so  I  asked 
him  where  he  was  going,  when  he  told  me  that  he 
was  going  to  Europe.  And  when  I  heard  this  I 
could  bear  it  no  longer.  I  felt  as  if  I  had  lost  father 
and  mother  ;  such  was  my  condition  that  my  eyes 
were  bathed  in  tears.  When  he  perceived  this  his 
face  became  flushed,  and,  wiping  his  tears  with  his 
handkerchief,  he  told  me  not  to  be  disheartened,  for, 
if  he  lived,  he  intended  to  return  to  Singapore.  .  .  . 
He  then  called  me  into  the  room  and  told  me  that 
there  were  three  presses  filled  with  Malay  books,  and 
to  wrap  them  up  well  in  waxcloth  and  pack  them  in 
hair  trunks,  four  in  number.  There  were  also 
Javanese  instruments  and  various  other  articles  ;  and 
when  he  had  shown  me  all  these  he  went  out ;  so 
with  my  own  hands  I  packed  up  all  the  books, 
histories  and  poems.  Of  these  there  were  three 
hundred .  bound  books,  not  counting  the  unbound 
ones,  and  scrolls  and  pamphlets.  .  .  .  Then  there  were 
two  trunks  filled  with  letters,  Javanese,  Bali  and 
Bujis  books,  and  various  images,  paintings  with 
their  frames,  musical  instruments,  inscriptions  and 
lontar  leaves.  Of  these  there  were  three  or  four 
boxes.  Besides  this,  the  Javanese  instruments,  with 
their  equipments,  were  in  one  great  box,  and 
there  were  many  thousands  of  specimens  of  animals, 
whose  carcases  had  been  taken  out  but  stuffed  like 
life.  There  were  also  two  or  three  trunks  full  of 
birds  in  thousands  and  of  various  species,  and  all 
stuffed.  There  were  also  several  hundred  bottles  of 
different  sizes.  .  .  .    There  were  also  tv/o  boxes  filled 


236        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

with  coral  of  a  thousand  kinds,  also  shells,  mussels  and 
bivalves  of  different  species.  On  all  these  articles 
stated  above  he  placed  a  value  greater  than  gold  ;  and 
he  was  constantly  coming  in  to  see  that  nothing  was 
hurt  or  broken.  .  .  .  Such  was  my  separation  from 
Mr  Raffles.  I  was  not  distressed  about  my  liveli- 
hood or  because  of  my  losing  him,  but  because  of 
his  noble  bearing,  his  justness,  modesty  and  respect 
to  his  fellowmen.  All  these  I  remember  to  this  day. 
There  are  many  great  men  besides  him — clever,  rich 
and  handsome- — but  in  good  disposition,  amiability  and 
gracefulness,  Mr  Raffles  had  not  his  equal.  .  .  .  When 
they  had  ascended  the  ship's  side  and  the  crew  were 
raising  the  anchor,  Mr  Raffles  called  me  to  him,  and 
I  went  into  his  cabin,  where  I  observed  that  his  face 
was  flushed  as  if  he  had  been  wiping  his  tears.' 

It  is  right  and  fitting  that  the  description  of  Sir 
Stamford's  last  moments  at  Singapore  should  be  from 
the  pen  of  a  member  of  the  nation  whose  cause  he 
had  consistently  espoused  throughout  his  public  life. 


CHAPTER    XIV 

VOYAGE    HOME,    AND    LAST    DAYS    IN    ENGLAND 
(1824-26) 

Further  Misfortune — Starts  for  England — Burning  of  the  Fame — 
Voyage  Home — Plans  for  Life  in  England — Recovers  His 
Spirits  —  Purchases  '  Highwood  '  —  Enjoys  Society  —  Founds 
'Zoo' — Claim  by  East  India  Company — Death. 

Our  hero's  public  life  may  be  said  to  have  closed 
with  his  departure  from  Singapore.  He  returned 
indeed  to  Bencoolen  for  a  few  months,  but  only  in 
order  that  he  might  wind  up  affairs.  On  the  voyage 
an  amusing  proof  was  given  of  the  feelings  enter- 
tained by  the  Dutch  authorities  with  regard  to  him. 
The  ship  had  occasion  to  touch  at  Batavia,  and  Sir 
Stamford  sent  a  civil  note  requesting  that  Lady 
Raffles,  on  account  of  her  health,  might  be  allowed  to 
land.  The  panic-stricken  reply  of  the  Dutch  Gover- 
nor is  exceedingly  funny.  He  wonders  that  after 
what  has  happened  since  181 8  Raffles  should  show  his 
face  at  Batavia.  In  the  circumstances,  he  cannot 
allow  of  any  personal  interview  or  communication, 
a  favour  which  Raffles  had  assuredly  never  requested. 
'  Had  Bonaparte  returned  to  life  and  anchored  in  the 
Downs,  it  would  not  have  excited  greater  agitation  in 
England  than  my  arrival  has  done  here.'  It  is  but 
237 


238        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

fair  to  add  that  the  permission  with  regard  to  Lady 
Raffles  was  duly  granted.  The  return  to  Bencoolen 
was  not  under  very  cheerful  auspices.  Another  little 
girl  was  born  to  Lady  Raffles  in  the  autumn  of  1823, 
who,  however,  did  not  live  long,  and  Lady  Raffles 
herself,  after  recovering  from  confinement,  was  attacked 
by  a  very  severe  fever.  Her  husband's  own  health 
became  very  bad.  '  I  am  scarcely  able  to  hold  up  my 
head  for  two  days  together,'  he  writes  on  November 
14,  1823.  'In  returning  to  Bencoolen,'  Lady  Raffles 
states,  '  Sir  Stamford  had  once  more  to  encounter  a 
scene  of  trial,  sickness  and  death.  His  few  remaining 
friends  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  climate  ;  his  family  it 
pleased  God  to  afflict  with  illness  ;  and  it  seemed  as 
if  his  life  was  to  end  with  his  labours.  It  is  not  easy 
to  describe  the  state  of  anxiety  in  which  the  last  two 
months  were  spent ;  ready  and  anxious  to  leave  a 
place  in  which  so  many  earthly  ties  of  happiness  had 
been  broken,  and  yet  seeing  hour  after  hour  pass  away, 
without  the  means  of  escape,  and  with  scarcely  a  hope 
that  life  would  be  prolonged  from  one  day  to  another.' 
'  Either  I  must  go  to  England,'  Sir  Stamford  writes  on 
December  20,  '  or,  by  remaining  in  India,  die^ 

At  last,  after  it  had  been  arranged  to  go  home  on 
another  vessel,  the  Fame  arrived  ;  and  on  February 
2,  1824,  Sir  Stamford  and  Lady  Raffles  embarked, 
and  sailed  at  daybreak  for  England,  'with  a  fair  wind 
and  every  prospect  ofa  quick  and  comfortable  passage.' 
Dls  al'iter  visum  !  A  fresh  misfortune  was  to  subject 
Raffles's  philosophy  to  a  strain  more  trying  in  its  way 
than  the  misfortunes  of  the  past  few  years.     '  Sophia,' 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  239 

Raffles  writes  on  the  4th,  '  had  just  gone  to  bed,  and 
I    had  thrown    oflf  half   my   clothes,   when   a   cry  of 
Fire  !   Fire  !  roused  us  from  our  calm  content,  and  in 
five  minutes  the  whole  ship  was  in  flames  !     I  ran  to 
examine  whence    the  flames    principally    issued,  and 
found  that  the  fire  had  its  origin  immediately  under 
our  cabin.     Down  with  the  boats  !    Where  is  Sophia  r 
Here.     The  children  ?     Here.     A    rope  to  the  side, 
lower  Lady  Raffles,  give    her    to    me,  says  one  ;  I'll 
take  her,  says  the  Captain.     Throw  the  gunpowder 
overboard  !       It    cannot    be    got    at.      It    is    in    the 
magazine  close  to  the  fire.     Stand  clear  of  the  powder. 
Scuttle  the  water  casks.     Water  !  water  !     Where's 
Sir     Stamford  ?       Come    into    the    boat  I        Nilson  ! 
Nilson,  come    into    the    boat.       Push    oft,  push   off! 
Stand    clear  of  the  after  part  of  the  ship.     All  this 
passed  much  quicker  than  I  can  write  it ;  we  pushed 
off",  and,  as  we  did  so,  the  flames    burst    out    of  our 
cabin  window,  and  the  whole  of  the  after  part  of  the 
ship  was  in  flames.     The  masts  and  sails  now  taking 
fire,  we  moved  to  a  distance  sufficient  to   avoid    the 
immediate    explosion ;    but    the     flames    were    now 
coming  out  of  the  main  hatchway  ;  and   seeing   the 
rest  of  the  crew  with  the  captain  still  on  board,  we 
pulled  back  to  her  under  the  bows,  so  as  to  be  more 
distant  from  the  powder.     As  we  approached  we  per- 
ceived that  the  people  on  board  were    getting    into 
another  boat  on    the  opposite  side.     She  pushed  ofF. 
We  hailed  her.     Have  you  all  on  board  ?     Yes,  all 
save   one.      Who  is  he  ?     Johnson,  sick   in  his  cot. 
Can   we  save    him  ?     No,  impossible.      The    flames 


240        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

were  issuing  from  the  hatchway.    At  this  moment  the 
poor  fellow,  scorched,  I  imagine,  by  the  flames,  roared 
out  most  lustily,  having  run  upon  the  deck.     I  will 
go  for  him,   says  the  Captain.     The   two  boats  then 
came  together,  arid  we   took  out  some  of  the  persons 
from  the  Captain's  boat,  which  was  overladen.     We 
then  pulled  under  the  bowsprit  of  the  ship  and  picked 
the  poor  fellow  up.     Are  you  all  safe  ?     Yes,  we  have 
got  the    man.     All  lives  safe,  thank   God  !      Pull  off 
from  the  ship.     Keep  your  eye  on  a  star,  Sir  Stam- 
ford.    There's  one  scarcely  visible.     We  then  hauled 
close  to  each  other,  and  found  the  Captain  fortunately 
had  a  compass,  but  we  had  no  light  except  from  the 
ship.     Our  distance  from  Bencoolen  we  estimated  to 
be  about  fifty  miles  in  a  south-west  direction.      There 
being  no  landing-place  to  the  southward  of  Bencoolen, 
our    only    chance    was    to    regain    that    port.       The 
captain  then  undertook  to  lead,  and  we  to  follow  in 
a  N.N.E.  course  as  well  as  we  could  ;  no  chance,  no 
possibility  being  left  that  we  could  again  approach  the 
ship,  for  she  was    now   one    splendid    flame,  fore  and 
aft    and    aloft,    her  masts  and    sails    in    a  blaze,    and 
rocking   to  and  fro,  threatening  to  fall  in  an  instant. 
There  goes  her  mizzen-mast.     Pull  away,    my  boys. 
There  goes  the  gunpowder.     Thank  God  !     Thank 
God  !     You  may  judge  of  our  situation  without  further 
particulars.     The  alarm    was    given  at  about   twenty 
minutes  past  eight,  and  in  less  than  ten  minutes  she 
was  in  flames.     There  was  not  a  soul  on  board  at  half- 
past  eight,  and  in  less  than  ten  minutes  afterwards  she 
was  one  srand  mass  of  fire. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  241 

*  My  only  apprehension  was  the  want  of  boats  to 
hold  the  people,  as  there  was  not  time  to  have  got 
out  the  long  boat  or  to  make  a  raft.  All  we  had  to 
rely  upon  were  two  small  quarter  boats,  which  for- 
tunately were  lowered  without  accident ;  and  in  these 
two  small  open  boats,  without  a  drop  of  water  or 
grain  of  food,  or  a  rag  of  covering,  except  what  we 
happened  at  the  moment  to  have  on  our  backs,  we 
embarked  on  the  ocean,  thankful  to  God  for  His 
mercies.  Poor  Sophia,  having  been  taken  out  of  her 
bed,  had  nothing  on  but  a  wrapper,  neither  shoes  nor 
stockings.  The  children  were  just  as  taken  out  of 
bed,  whence  one  had  been  snatched  after  the  flames 
had  attacked  it.  In  short,  there  was  not  time  for 
anyone  to  think  of  more  than  two  things  :  Can  the 
ship  be  saved  ?  No  ;  let  us  save  ourselves,  then. 
All  else  was  swallowed  up  in  one  grand  ruin. 

'To  make  the  best  of  our  misfortune,  we  availed 
ourselves  of  the  light  from  the  ship  to  steer  a  toler- 
ably clear  course  towards  the  shore.  She  continued 
to  burn  till  about  midnight,  when  the  saltpetre  which 
she  had  on  board  took  fire  and  sent  up  one  of  the 
most  splendid  and  brilliant  flames  that  ever  was  seen, 
illumining  the  horizon  in  every  direction  to  an  extent 
of  not  less  than  fifty  miles,  and  casting  that  kind  of 
blue  light  over  us  which  is  of  all  others  most  horrible. 
She  burnt  and  continued  to  flame  in  this  style  for 
about  an  hour  or  two,  when  we  lost  sight  of  the 
object  in  a  cloud  of  smoke.  Neither  Nilson  nor  Mr 
Bell,  our  medical  friend,  who  had  accompanied  us, 
had  saved  their  coats ;    but  the  tail  of  mine,  with  a 

Q 


242        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

pocket  -  handkerchief,  served  to  keep  Sophia's  feet 
warm,  and  we  made  breeches  for  the  children  with 
our  neck-cloths.  Rain  now  came  on,  but  fortun- 
ately it  was  of  not  long  continuance,  and  we  got  dry 
again.  The  night  became  serene  and  starlight.  We 
were  now  certain  of  our  course,  and  the  men  behaved 
manfully.  They  rowed  incessantly,  and  with  good 
heart  and  spirit,  and  never  did  poor  mortals  look  out 
more  for  daylight  and  for  land  than  we  did.  Not 
that  our  sufferings  or  grounds  of  complaint  were  any- 
thing to  what  has  often  befallen  others,  but  from 
Sophia's  delicate  health,  as  well  as  my  own,  and  the 
stormy  nature  of  our  coast,  I  felt  perfectly  convinced 
we  were  unable  to  undergo  starvation  and  exposure 
to  sun  and  weather  many  days,  and,  aware  of  the 
rapidity  of  the  currents,  I  feared  that  we  might  fall 
to  the  southward  of  the  port. 

'At  daylight  we  recognised  the  coast  and  Rat 
Island,  which  gave  us  great  spirits  ;  and  though  we 
found  ourselves  much  to  the  southward  of  the  port, 
we  considered  ourselves  almost  at  home.  Sophia  had 
gone  through  the  night  better  than  could  have  been 
expected,  and  we  continued  to  pull  on  with  all  our 
strength.  About  eight  or  nine  we  saw  a  ship  stand- 
ing to  us  from  the  Roads.  They  had  seen  the  flames 
on  shore,  and  sent  out  vessels  to  our  relief.  And 
here  certainly  came  a  minister  of  Providence  in  the 
character  of  a  minister  of  the  Gospel,  for  the  first 
person  I  recognised  was  one  of  our  missionaries. 
They  gave  us  a  bucket  of  water,  and  we  took  the 
Captain   on   board  as  a   pilot.     The   wind,   however. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  243 

was  adverse,  and  we  could  not  reach  the  shore,  and 
took  to  the  ship,  where  we  got  some  refreshment  and 
shelter  from  the  sun.  By  this  time  Sophia  was  quite 
exhausted,  fainting  continually.  About  two  o'clock 
we  landed  safe  and  sound,  and  no  words  of  mine  can 
do  justice  to  the  expressions  of  feeling,  sympathy  and 
kindness  with  which  we  were  hailed  by  everyone.  If 
any  proof  had  been  wanting  that  my  administration 
had  been  satisfactory  here,  we  had  it  unequivocally 
from  all.  There  was  not  a  dry  eye,  and  as  we  drove 
back  to  our  former  home,  loud  was  the  cry  of  "  God 
be  praised  ! "  But  enough  ;  and  I  will  only  add  that 
we  are  now  greatly  recovered,  in  good  spirits,  and 
busy  at  work  getting  ready-made  clothes  for  present 
use.  We  went  to  bed  at  three  in  the  afternoon,  and 
I  didn't  wake  till  six  in  the  morning.  Sophia  had 
nearly  as  sound  a  sleep,  and  with  the  exception  of  a 
bruise  or  two,  and  a  little  pain  in  the  bones  from 
fatigue,  we  have  nothing  to  complain  of. 

*  The  loss  I  have  to  regret,  beyond  all,  is  my  papers 
and  drawings — all  my  notes  and  observations,  with 
memoirs  and  collections,  sufficient  for  a  full  and  ample 
history,  not  only  of  ■  Sumatra,  but  of  Borneo  and 
almost  every  other  island  of  note  in  these  seas,  my 
intended  account  of  the  establishment  of  Singapore, 
the  history  of  my  own  administration,  Eastern 
grammars,  dictionaries  and  vocabularies,  and  last,  not 
least,  a  grand  map  of  Sumatra,  on  which  I  had  been 
employed  since  my  arrival  here,  and  on  which,  for 
the  last  six  months,  I  had  employed  almost  my  whole 
undivided    attention.       This,    however,    was    not    all. 


244        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

All  my  collections  in  natural  history,  all  my  splendid 
collection  of  drawings,  upwards  of  three  thousand  in 
number,  with  all  the  valuable  papers  and  notes  of  my 
friends,  Arnold  and  Jack  ;  and,  to  conclude,  I  will 
merely  notice  that  there  was  scarce  an  unknown 
animal,  bird,  beast  or  fish,  or  an  interesting  plant, 
which  we  had  not  on  board  :  a  living  tapir,  a  new 
species  of  tiger,  splendid  pheasants,  etc.,  domesticated 
for  the  voyage.  We  were,  in  short,  in  this  respect, 
a  perfect  Noah's  Ark.  All,  all  has  perished  ;  but, 
thank  God,  our  lives  have  been  spared,  and  we  do 
not  repine.' 

In  another  letter  to  his  sister,  he  writes  : — '  Our 
losses  have  been  dreadful.  All  our  plate,  that  from 
Java,  all  Sophia's  jewels,  without  exception  ;  all  our 
gold  work ;  my  valuable  collections  of  all  kinds, 
one  hundred  and  fifty  packages ;  all  my  papers, 
memoirs,  all  my  beautiful  drawings,  in  short,  the 
cream  and  best  of  everything  I  had  collected, 
learned  and  attained  during  my  residence  in  India, 
all,  all  has  gone  in  this  sad  ruin,  and  there  is  not  in 
truth  a  "  wreck  left  behind,"  save  ourselves.'  It  speaks 
well  for  our  hero's  nature  that  "in  the  same  letter  he 
is  able  to  joke  about  his  sister's  boy.  'Instead  of 
laced  jackets,  etc.,  poor  Charley  must  now  be  content 
with  huckaback.  Where's  your  trousers,  Charley  ? 
My  breeches  are  burnt.  My  hat  burnt,  all  burnt.' 
'  The  morning,'  Lady  Raffles  tells  us,  *  after  the  loss 
of  all  that  he  had  been  collecting  for  many  years  with 
such  unwearied  zeal,  interest  and  labour,  he  recom- 
menced   sketching    the    map   of  Sumatra,  set  all   his 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  245 

draughtsmen  to  work  in  making  new  drawings  of  some 
of  the  most  interesting  specimens  in  natural  history, 
despatched  a  number  of  people  into  the  forest  to 
collect  more  animals,  and  neither  murmur  nor  lamen- 
tation ever  escaped  his  lips ;  on  the  contrary,  upon  the 
ensuing  Sabbath,  he  publicly  returned  thanks  to 
Almighty  God.' 

In  his  despatch  to  the  Court  of  Directors  on  the 
subject,  Raffles  wrote  : — '  The  fire  had  its  origin  in 
the  storeroom,  immediately  under  the  apartments 
occupied  by  myself  and  family,  and  was  occasioned 
by  the  shameful  carelessness  of  the  steward  going 
with  a  naked  light  to  draw  off  brandy  from  a  cask 
which  took  fire.  .  .  .  After  a  service  of  nearly  thirty 
years  and  the  exercise  of  supreme  authority  as  a 
Governor  for  nearly  twelve  years  of  that  period 
over  the  finest  and  most  interesting,  but  perhaps 
the  least  known  countries  in  creation,  I  had,  as  I 
vainly  thought,  closed  my  Indian  life  with  benefit 
to  my  country  and  satisfaction  to  myself;  carrying 
with  me  such  testimonials  and  information  as  I  trusted 
would  have  proved  that  I  had  not  been  an  unprofit- 
able or  a  dilatory  labourer  in  this  fruitful  and  extensive 
vineyard.  ...  In  the  course  of  those  measures 
numerous  and  weighty  responsibilities  became  neces- 
sary ;  the  European  v/orld,  the  Indian  world  (the 
continental  part  of  it  at  least)  were  wholly  un- 
informed of  the  nature  of  those  countries,  their 
character  and  resources.  I  did  not  hesitate  to  take 
these  responsibilities,  as  the  occasion  required  them, 
and,  though  from  imperfect  information  many  of  my 


246        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

measures  in  Java  were  at  first  condemned,  I  had  the 
satisfaction  to  find  them  in  the  end  not  only  approved 
but  applauded  far  beyond  my  humble  pretensions,  and 
even  by  those  w^ho  had  been  at  first  opposed  to  me.  I 
need  refer  to  no  stronger  case  than  that  of  the  Marquis 
of  Hastings,  .  .  .  During  the  last  six  years  of  my 
administration  .  .  .  the  responsibilities  w^hich  I  have 
been  compelled  to  take  in  support  of  the  interests 
of  my  country  and  of  my  employers  have  been,  if 
possible,  still  greater  than  during  my  former  career  ; 
I  allude  to  the  struggle  v^^hich  I  have  felt  it  my  duty 
to  make  against  Dutch  rapacity  and  powder,  and  to  the 
difficulties  which  I  had  to  contend  v\^ith  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  Singapore,  and  the  reforms  which  have 
been  effected  on  this  coast.  .  .  . 

*  It  was  at  the  close  of  such  an  administration  that  I 
embarked  with  my  family  on  the  Faine^  carrying  with 
me  endless  volumes  and  papers  of  information  on  the 
civil  and  natural  history  of  nearly  every  island  within 
the  Malay  Archipelago.  ...  I  am  left  single  and 
unaided  without  the  help  of  one  voucher  to  tell  my 
story  and  uphold  my  proceedings  when  I  appear 
before  your  Honourable  Court.  It  has  always 
appeared  to  me  that  the  value  of  these  countries 
was  to  be  traced  rather  through  the  means  of  their 
natural  history  than  in  the  dark  recesses  of  Dutch 
diplomacy  and  intrigue ;  and  I  accordingly  at  all 
times  felt  disposed  to  give  encouragement  to  those 
deserving  men  who  devote  themselves  to  the  pursuits 
of  science.  Latterly,  when  political  interests  seemed 
to   require  that  I  should   for  a   time  retire  from  the 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  247 

field,  and  there  was  little  more  to  be  done  for  this 
small  settlement,  I  have  myself  devoted  a  considerable 
portion  of  my  time  to  these  pursuits,  and  in  forming 
extensive  collections  in  natural  history  ;  my  attention 
has  also  been  directed  in  a  particular  manner  to  the 
geography  of  the  island  of  Sumatra.' 

After  an  elaborate  statement  of  the  papers  and 
collections  thus  lost.  Sir  Stamford  continues  :^'  In 
a  pecuniary  point  of  view  my  loss  has  been  not 
less  extensive,  as  may  be  perceived  by  the  annexed 
statement,  in  which  I  have  assumed  the  actual  cost 
of  the  principal  articles  which  have  been  sacrificed.' 
(The  sum  total  amounted  to  over  ^^30,000.)  '  Most 
of  them  are  what  no  money  can  replace ;  such  as 
the  service  of  plate  presented  to  me  by  the  in- 
habitants of  Java ;  the  diamonds  presented  to  my 
family  by  the  captors  of  Djocjocarta  ;  the  diamond 
presented  to  me  by  the  Princess  Charlotte,  on  my 
embarkation  for  India,  a  week  before  her  death. 
These  and  many  other  tokens  of  regard,  friendship 
and  respect,  during  an  active  and  varied  life,  cannot 
ever  be  replaced.  Money  may  compensate  perhaps 
for  other  losses,  but  no  insurance  may  or  could  be 
effected  from  home.  It  rests  solely  and  exclusively 
with  the  Court  to  consider  in  how  far  my  claims 
on  account  of  services  may  be  strengthened  by  the 
severity  of  misfortune  which  has  latterly  attached 
itself  to  my  case.' 

Apart  from  more  serious  consequences,  the  burning 
of  the  Fame  entailed  the  misfortune  of  yet  another 
squabble   with   the  Company  with  respect  to  money 


248        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

matters.  We  may  dismiss  the  subject  with  one  more 
quotation  from  the  worthy  Abdulla.  '  When  I  heard 
this  news  I  was  breathless,  remembering  all  the  Malay 
books  of  ancient  date  collected  from  various  countries 
.  .  .  the  books  could  not  be  recovered,  for  none  of 
them  were  printed  but  in  manuscript.  They  were  so 
rare  that  one  country  might  have  only  two  of  them — 
that  is  what  distressed  me.  I  further  remembered  his 
intention  of  composing  a  work  on  these  countries,  and 
his  promise  to  put  my  name  in  it.    All  this  was  gone.' 

The  return  to  Bencoolen  afforded  to  the  inhabit- 
ants, both  European  and  native,  an  opportunity  of 
showing  the  warmth  of  their  attachment  to  Sir  Stam- 
ford Raffles.  '  Having  been  thrown  back  on  this  shore 
most  unexpectedly,  we  were  naked  and  they  clothed 
us ;  hungry  and  athirst,  and  they  fed  us  ;  weary  and 
exhausted,  and  they  comforted  and  consoled  us.' 

At  last,  on  the  8th  of  April,  the  party  again 
embarked  for  Europe,  and  on  the  loth  they  set  sail. 
Lady  Raffles  publishes  some  extracts  from  a  diary 
kept  by  Sir  Stamford  on  the  passage  home.  '  20th 
April. — I  this  day  commenced  to  apply  to  study,  and 
devoted  the  early  part  of  the  morning  to  Euclid,  and 
the  remainder  to  the  arrangement  of  my  papers,  etc. 
As  far  as  circumstances  admit,  I  propose  to  divide  my 
time  and  application  as  follows  during  the  voyage  : 
Appropriating  eight  hours  in  each  day  to  study,  read- 
ing or  writing,  and  with  an  intention  of  making  up 
one  day  for  any  loss  of  time  on  another.  .  .  .  Before 
breakfast,  one  hour  mathematics  or  logic,  one  hour 
Latin,  Greek  or  Hebrew.  ...     In  the  evening,  for 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  249 

one  hour,  reading  a  play  of  Shakespeare,  or  other 
entertaining  productions.  ...  As  the  servants  are 
always  behindhand  in  furnishing  the  meals,  I  may 
freely  trust  to  their  affording  me  time  for  dressing  by 
such  delays,  which  will  only  eventually  break  in  on 
the  proposed  three  hours'  relaxation  for  the  evening,  a 
portion  of  which  may  well  be  spared,  or  half-an-hour 
may  be  added  to  the  day  by  going  to  bed  at  half-past 
nine  or  ten,  instead  of  nine  as  proposed.  My  object 
in  making  this  memorandum  is  that  I  may  hold  the 
rule  as  inviolable  as  I  can,  and,  by  frequently  recurring 
to  it,  revive  my  sleeping  energies  should  I  at  any  time 
be  inclined  to  indolence.  I  should  not,  however,  omit 
to  add  that  all  reading  and  study  on  a  Sunday  is  to  be 
confined  to  the  Bible  and  religious  subjects.  The 
Greek  and  Hebrew,  however,  as  connected,  may 
nevertheless  form  a  part  of  the  study  of  that  day.' 
They  arrived  at  St  Helena  on  June  25,  after  a 
passage  of  eleven  weeks,  and  '  encountering  constant 
and  severe  gales  off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  during 
three  weeks  of  that  period.  The  gale  was  so  severe 
that  during  this  period  we  were  unable  to  leave  our 
cots  ;  the  sea  poured  through  the  decks  into  our  cabin, 
and  the  roar  of  the  wind  was  such  that  we  could  not 
hear  each  other  speak.  Lady  Raffles,  though  boarded 
up  in  her  couch,  was  obliged  to  have  ropes  to  hold  by 
to  prevent  her  knocking  from  one  side  of  it  to  the 
other  ;  the  ship  lay  like  a  wreck  upon  the  ocean  at 
the  mercy  of  the  winds  and  waves,  and  we  resigned 
ourselves  to  the  feeling  that  our  pilgrimage  in  this 
world  was  soon  to  close.' 


250        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

At  St  Helena  the  news  reached  Raffles  of  the  death 
of  his  mother.  In  the  last  letter  addressed  by  him  to 
her  we  note  the  loving  forethought  which  caused  him 
.to  erase  a  sentence  he  had  written  alluding  to  his 
altered  appearance  and  his  white  hair  for  fear  of  caus- 
ing her  alarm.  If  ever  there  had  been  a  good  son,  he 
had  been  one,  and  doubtless  her  death  just  at  the 
moment  when  they  seemed  about  to  be  united  for  the 
short  remaining  period  of  her  life  was  a  severe  blow. 
The  portion  of  the  diary  published  contains  no 
allusion  to  the  event,  but  the  following  entry  shows 
that  serious  things  were  at  the  time  occupying 
Raffles's  mind.  *  There  are  some  souls  bright  and 
precious,  which,  like  gold  and  silver,  may  be  subdued  by 
the  fiery  trial,  and  yield  to  a  new  mould  ;  but  there 
are  others,  firm  and  solid  as  the  diamond,  which  may 
be  shivered  to  pieces,  yet  in  every  fragment  retain 
their  indelible  character.' 

On  June  26  Raffles  wrote  to  the  Duchess  of 
Somerset : — *  I  have  neither  time  nor  spirits  to  say  more 
than  that  we  are  alive  and  tolerably  well,  and  hope  to 
reach  England  in  August.  My  health  and  strength 
are  entirely  gone,  but  I  trust  I  have  got  enough  spirit 
to  bear  up  for  the  voyage.  .  .  .  Pray  excuse  this 
hasty  scrawl  ;  my  eyes  are  quite  blinded  with  tears, 
and  my  hand  is  so  nervous  that  I  can  scarcely  hold  my 
pen.'  They  arrived  at  Plymouth  on  August  22, 
'  in  better  health  than  could  have  been  expected.' 
However  '  broken-hearted  and  broken  down  in  every 
way  when  he  landed,'  the  natural  buoyancy  of  his 
nature   soon    asserted    itself.       Already   on    the    24th 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  251 

August  we  find  him  writing  with  regard  to  his  future 
plans,  '  I  confess  that  I  have  a  great  desire  to  turn 
farmer,  and  have  the  vanity  to  think  I  could  manage 
about  two  hundred  acres  as  well  as  my  neighbours. 
With  this  I  suppose  I  shall  in  time  become  a  country 
magistrate,  an  office  which,  of  all  others,  I  shall 
delight  in  ;  and  if  I  could  eventually  get  a  seat  in 
Parliament,  without  sacrifice  in  principle,  I  shall  be 
content  to  pass  through  my  life  without  aiming  at 
anything  further,  beyond  the  occupation  of  my  spare 
time  in  promoting,  as  far  as  my  humble  means  and 
talents  admitted,  the  pursuits  of  knowledge  and 
science,  advancement  of  philanthropic  and  religious 
principles.' 

Meanwhile  dreams  as  to  the  future  did  not  banish 
care  from  the  present.  In  October  he  drew  out  a 
brief  review  of  his  public  administration  during  the 
last  twelve  years.  '  After  the  loss  of  all  my  documents 
and  records,  a  paper  of  this  kind  becomes  the  more 
interesting.  I  hope  I  shall  not  be  found  to  have  said 
too  much  in  favour  of  my  own  services  and  pretensions, 
and  yet  the  countries  in  which  I  have  been  placed 
have  been  so  new,  untrodden,  and  interesting,  and 
the  situations  in  which  I  have  been  thrown  have  been 
so  peculiar  and  trying,  that,  unless  I  state  them  my- 
self, few  will  either  know  or  understand  anything 
about  them.  I  feel  confident  that  my  course  has  been 
so  straightforward,  that  the  more  light  that  may  be 
thrown  upon  it  the  more  obvious  it  will  appear  and 
the  more  creditable  it  will  be  to  my  character.' 

In  October  1824  Sir  Stamford  was  seriously  unwell 


2  52       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

from  an  attack  in  the  head  and  bad  cold.  '  Thank 
God,'  he  writes  on  the  23rd,  'I  am  better,  though  I 
am  hardly  able  to  hold  my  pen,  and  which  I  dare  not 
trust  except  within  very  close  limitation  ;  for  I  believe 
it  was  in  consequence  of  using  it  too  much  upon  the 
paper  I  was  drawing  up  that  I  have  to  attribute  this 
unfortunate  relapse,  which  has  thrown  me  back  in 
point  of  health  at  least  two  months,  and  as  winter  is 
fast  approaching,  time  is  precious.'  '  Time  was,'  he 
adds  in  November,  '  when  I  wanted  not  strength  to 
second  my  will  ;  but  I  am  now  almost  shattered, 
and  altogether  unequal  to  one-thousandth  part  of  all 
I  would  wish  or  desire  to  do.'  Still,  on  the  whole, 
things  were  mending.  '  I  have  been  following  your 
kind  advice,'  he  tells  the  Duchess  of  Somerset  in 
December,  '  idling  and  playing  the  fool  with  my 
time  as  much  as  possible.  We  are  beginning  to  get 
a  little  more  to  rights  than  when  you  left  us,  but  I 
have  been  only  able  to  unpack  two  cases  out  of  one 
hundred  and  seventy  then  in  course  of  transport  to 
the  house.'  In  the  preceding  month  he  had  estab- 
lished himself  in  Piccadilly.  'The  house,  though 
well  situated,  was  by  no  means  equal  to  their  demands,' 
and  they  soon  moved  thence  to  a  house  in  Lower 
Grosvenor  Street,^  which  Sir  Stamford  bought  from 
Sir  Humphry  Davy.  In  June  1825  he  purchased, 
as  a  country  place,  Highwood,  near  Hendon,  where 
his  next-door  neighbour  was  William  Wilberforce. 
We  owe  to  Dr  Raffles  an  interesting  account  of 
the  relations  between  the  two   men.     '  Sir  Stamford 

'   No.  23. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  253 

and  Wilberforce  were  most  intimate  friends,  and  at 
length  came  to  be  next-door  neighbours,  dividing 
Highwood  Hill,  near  Barnet,  between  them.  The 
village  at  the  top  of  the  hill  was  also  pretty  equally 
divided  between  them ;  Sir  Stamford  owning  one 
half  and  Wilberforce  the  other.  Each  portion  had 
a  public-house  in  it,  and  he  used  to  laugh  and  say, 
"Wilberforce  has  the  Crown^  and  I  the  Rising 
Sun."  Each  had  an  excellent  house,  unpretending 
but  very  convenient.  My  cousin's  amount  of  land 
was  about  one  hundred  and»  twenty  statute  acres, 
yielding  enough  for  all  his  purposes  with  a  considerable 
amount  for  sale.  .  .  .  Before  he  (Wilberforce)  came  to 
reside  at  Highwood,  he  left  the  laying  out  of  the 
grounds  contiguous  to  the  house  to  the  taste  of  Sir 
Stamford.  He  took  me  in  with  him  on  one  occasion 
to  shew  me  what  he  was  doing  ;  I  well  remember 
the  glee  with  which  he  said,  taking  me  to  a  long 
mound  which  he  had  raised  and  planted  with  shrubs 
and  flowers,  "  There,  I  have  raised  this  mound  that 
the  little  man  may  enjoy  his  daily  walk,  sheltered  by 
it  from  the  north  winds,  which  would  otherwise  be 
too  severe  for  him."  Alas  !  how  brief  was  the  period 
allowed  for  the  happy  intercourse  he  thus  anticipated  ! 
Wilberforce  had  scarcely  got  settled  when  Sir  Stam- 
ford died.  Wilberforce  did  not  long  survive  him  ; 
and  as  they  were,  when  death  parted  them,  living 
beside  each  other,  so  their  statues  are  now  and  will 
long  remain  side  by  side  in  close  juxtaposition  among 
the  illustrious  dead  in  Westminster  Abbey.' 

Sir    Stamford    thoroughly    enjoyed    the    otiu?n    cum 


2  54        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

dignltate  of  a  country  life.  At  the  end  of  1825  we 
find  him  applying  to  be  placed  on  the  Commission 
of  the  Peace.  '  From  the  improvement  in  my  health, 
and  from  a  desire  to  be  useful  to  the  extent  of  my 
ability,  added  to  the  consideration  that  it  may  afford 
me  the  means  of  becoming  practically  acquainted  with 
the  real  state  of  our  society,  and  of  much  regarding 
our  laws  and  usages  which  it  is  impossible  for  me 
to  know  otherwise  than  theoretically,  I  no  longer 
hesitate.' 

Meanwhile  society  had  lost  none  of  its  attractions. 
Sir  Stamford  writes  to  his  cousin  in  May  1825  : — '  My 
health,  thank  God,  is  upon  the  whole  improved  ;  and  I 
am  happy  to  say  both  Sophia  and  my  little  one  are 
quite  well.  Necessity  has  compelled  me  to  go  much 
into  society  ;  and  I  am  almost  surprised  that  at  this  gay 
season  of  festivity  I  have  been  able  to  carry  on  the 
war.  Seldom  a  day  passes  without  an  engagement 
for  dinner,  and  for  many  weeks  I  have  not  been  able 
to  command  an  hour's  leisure.  It  is  true  I  have  not 
attended  very  closely  to  anything,  but  all  is  so  new, 
varied,  and  important  in  the  metropolis  of  this  great 
Empire,  after  so  long  an  absence  in  the  woods  and 
wilds  of  the  East,  that,  like  the  bee,  I  wander  from 
flower  to  flower,  and  drink  in  delicious  nutriment 
from  the  numerous  intellectual  and  moral  sources 
which  surround  me.' 

Raffles  was  at  this  time  much  occupied  in  starting 
the  Zoological  Society.  '  I  am  much  interested,'  he 
writes  in  March  1825,  '  in  establishing  a  grand 
zoological  collection  in  the  metropolis,  with  a  society 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  255 

for  the  introduction  of  living  animals  having  the  same 
relation  to  zoology  as  a  science  that  the  Horticultural 
Society  does  to  botany.  The  prospectus  is  draw^n  out, 
and  when  a  few  copies  are  printed  I  will  send  some  to 
you.  We  hope  to  have  2000  subscribers  at  ^2  each  ; 
and  it  is  further  expected  we  may  go  beyond  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes  at  Paris.  Sir  Humphry  Davy 
and  myself  are  the  projectors  ;  and  while  he  looks 
more  to  the  practical  and  immediate  utility  to  the 
country  gentlemen,  my  attention  is  more  directed  to 
the  scientific  department.'  In  fact,  Davy's  share  in 
the  work  appears  to  have  been  of  the  slightest  char- 
acter, and  to  Raffles  belongs  the  whole  credit  of 
establishing  the  Society,  of  which  he  became  first 
President.' 

It  might  have  been  expected  that,  released  from 
the   cares    of    office.    Sir     Stamford      Raffles    should 

'  A  large  amount  of  information  with  regard  to  the  scientific  side  of 
Sir  Stamford  Raffles  has  been  collected  by  the  zeal  and  industry  of  the 
Rev.  R.  B.  Raffles.  Here  it  must  suffice  to  say  that  Sir  Stamford 
became  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries 
in  March  1817,  and  of  the  Linnean  Society  in  February  1825.  His 
most  important  written  contribution  to  science  was  A  Descripti'ue  Cata- 
logue of  a  Zciolcglcal  Collection,  .  .  .  made  in  the  Island  of  Sumatra  and 
its -vicinity  i  '  drawn  up  ,  .  .  from  actual  examination  of  the  subjects, 
combined  with  the  result  of  extensive  personal  inquiries  among  the  best 
informed  natives  of  the  country.'  This  was  published  in  Vol.  XIII.  of 
the  Transactions  of  the  Linnean  Society.  The  Zoological  Journal,  Vol.  III., 
in  a  description  of  a  new  animal,  contains  the  following  tribute  to 
Raffles:  '  Viri  illustrissimi,  in  omni  scientia  prasstantis,  in  vita  nobis 
amicissimi,  in  morte  heu  !  nunquam  satis  deflendi,  hasc  species  me- 
moriae sit  sacra.'  Raffles's  reputation  in  the  European  scientific  world  is 
attested  by  the  fact  that  the  great  French  naturalist,  M.  Geoffroy  St. 
Hilaire,  described  a  new  variety  of  animal  under  the  specific  name  of 
^  Ra_fflesiiJ  A  broad  distinction  should  be  drawn  between  Sir  Stamford's 
scientific  work  at  Java  antl  at  Sumatra.  In  the  former  he  was  mainly 
the  patron  and  Macenas,  in  the  latter  he  had  more  leisure  and  oppor- 
tunity for  scientific  research  on  his  own  account.  Sir  Stamford  Raffles 
was  made  LL.D.  by  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  June  1825. 


256        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

have  passed  his  remaining  years  in  peace.  Un- 
happily, however,  although  he  had  retired  from  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company,  there  had  not  been 
a  final  settlement  of  accounts,  and  on  April  12,  1826, 
a  bolt  was  discharo-ed  from  the  Leadenhall  Street 
Olympus,  which  probably  shortened  our  hero's  life/ 
He  had  been  under  the  impression  that  his  case  would 
receive  favourable  treatment  from  the  Company.  He 
had  written  in  February  1826: — 'The  East  India 
Company  are  now  talking  of  taking  up  my  case  and 
granting  me  an  annuity  ;  but  I  fear  it  will  be  very 
moderate,  and  ;^500  a  year  is  the  largest  amount  I 
hear  of.  This,  had  I  the  means  of  living  independent 
of  them,  I  should  not  be  inclined  to  accept ;  but  neces- 
sity and  consideration  for  my  family  must  predominate, 
and  I  must  e'en  be  content  with  what  I  can  get.  I 
have  unfortunately  been  a  considerable  loser  by  the 
cession  of  Bencoolen — some  thousands.  My  bankers 
have  failed  here,  and  altogether  my  prospects  are  not 
as  comfortable  as  they  were  ;  but  the  pressure  is,  I 
hope,  only  temporary,  and  I  trust  it  will  be  right 
again,  and  that  I  shall  not  be  obliged  to  seek  a  tropical 
clime  again  in  search  oi  filthy  lucr e  •,  for  nothing  else 
would,  I  think,  tempt  me  to  venture.' 

Such  being  the  state  of  things,  it  may  be  imagined 
with  what  feelings  Raffles  received  a  communication 
from  the  Company,  wherein  they  formally  demanded 
the  reimbursement  of  over  ^^22,200.  This  sum  was 
mainly  made   up  of  four  separate   items.     There  was 

'  It  is  right  to  note  that  a  previous  letter  from  the  Directors,  dated 
February  22,  had  prepared  the  way  for  what  followed. 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  257 

first  the  salary  for  the  years  18 16-18,  which  Raffles 
had  drawn  as  Resident,  and  afterwards  as  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Bencoolen,  from  his  leaving  Java,  but 
which  the  Company  only  allowed  from  his  actual  arrival 
in  Sumatra.  This  head  accounted  for  over  66,000  rupees. 
A  further  31,000  rupees  was  the  difference  between 
the  amount  due  for  salarv  at  the  time  of  leaving  Java 
in  paper  money  and  in  Spanish  dollars.  With  regard 
to  these  two  items.  Raffles  wrote: — '  For  these  amounts, 
calculated  with  interest,  and  converted  into  sterling 
money  by  the  auditor,  I  have  requested  payment  may 
be  received  in  Calcutta,  where  the  funds  are  deposited 
for  the  purpose.  However  serious  the  repayment  of 
so  large  an  amount  may  be,  I  have  no  right  to  com- 
plain, as  the  express  condition  on  which  the  sums 
were  provisionally  drawn  was  their  being  subject  to 
the  confirmation  of  the  Honourable  Court,  which  has 
been  denied.  It  will,  however,  appear  that,  with 
regard  to  the  first  and  most  important  item,  viz.,  the 
arrears  of  salary,  it  could  not  have  constituted  a 
claim  but  from  the  circumstance  of  my  removal  from 
Java,  and  the  tenor  of  my  appointment  to  Bencoolen 
by  the  Earl  of  Minto ;  and  as  my  appeal  to  the 
Honourable  Court  on  that  question,  viz.,  my  removal 
from  Java,  is  still  before  the  Honourable  Court,  and  it 
remains  to  be  decided  upon  how  far  my  unfortunate 
recall  was  merited  by  my  conduct,  I  trust  that  if  it 
shall  appear,  on  the  general  review  of  my  administra- 
tion, that  such  recall  occurred  under  partial  or  defec- 
tive information,  which  has  been  since  supplied,  and 
that  subsequent  inquiry  has  proved  that  such  adminis- 

R 


258        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

tration  was,  upon  the  whole,  sound  and  creditable  to 
myself  and  my  employers,  I  may  still  look  to  the 
Honourable  Court's  liberal  consideration  of  the  heavy 
pecuniary  loss  to  which  I  was  subjected  on  the  occa- 
sion, and  of  which  this  item  forms  a  part.  .  .  . 
The  other  item,  viz.,  the  loss  by  discount  on  paper, 
being  an  actual  abstraction  from  the  amount  of  my  salary 
as  Lieutenant-Governor,  will,  I  hope,  also  be  considered 
with  reference  to  the  small  amount  of  that  salary,  and 
to  the  loss  being  occasioned  by  my  sudden  recall  at  a 
moment  no  less  injurious  to  my  character  than  pecuni- 
ary interests,  for  had  I  remained  till  the  transfer,  I 
should  have  derived  the  advantage  from  the  notes 
being  all  at  par  and  paid  ofF.' 

Whatever  claim  Raffles  may  have  had  with 
regard  to  his  Bencoolen  salary  upon  the  equities 
of  the  case,  it  will  seem  that  upon  the  literal  mean- 
ing of  his  commission  the  intention  of  the  Company 
was  justified.  The  words  were,  '  The  allowances 
receivable  by  you  as  Resident  at  Fort  Marlborough 
are  to  commence  from  the  date  on  which  you 
may  proceed  to  that  settlement  from  Java.'  What 
is  open  to  criticism  is  the  system  under  which 
accounts  remained  open  for  so  long  a  period  of 
years. 

A  third  item  of  nearly  74,000  rupees  represented 
commissions  paid  to  Raffles  on  exports  to  Europe  from 
Bencoolen.  The  claim  to  such  commissions  had 
been  allowed  by  the  Bengal  Government,  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  home  authorities,  and  the 
silence    of   the  East  India  Company  on   the    subject 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  259 

led  Raffles  to  suppose  that  the  sums  drawn  had 
been  approved  by  the  Home  Government.  The 
delay  in  the  Court's  decision,  he  pointed  out,  had 
subjected  him  to  a  total  loss  of  the  amount  by  the 
present  failure  of  his  agents  ;  for  had  the  Court's 
definitive  reply  reached  him  at  Bencoolen,  the  funds 
v^^ere  then  at  hand  awaiting  their  orders.  Just  when 
the  order  of  the  East  India  Company  was  received, 
Raffles  had  suffered  the  loss  of  over  ^16,000  from 
the  failure  of  the  East  Indian  House,  which  had 
been  intrusted  with  the  remittance  of  his  property 
to  England.  In  this  state  of  things  Raffles  was 
obliged  to  ask  '  the  indulgence  of  time  to  enable 
me  to  raise  the  sum  necessary.  At  present  I  have 
no  other  means  of  doing  so  but  by  disposing  of  my 
East  India  Stock,  and  the  sale  of  the  little  property 
I  had  set  apart  as  a  provision  for  my  family  after  my 
death.'  The  further  sum  of  about  50,000  rupees 
claimed  by  the  Company  as  extra  charges  at  Acheen 
and  Singapore  raised  considerations  of  a  different 
character.  '  This  disbursement,'  Raffles  pointed 
out,  '  was  incurred  and  charged  under  the  authority 
and  consistently  with  the  orders  of  the  Supreme 
Government,  and  independent  of  the  general  allow- 
ances of  the  Resident  of  Bencoolen.  It  occurred 
under  the  following  circumstances :  Inconvenience 
had  arisen  from  the  mode  in  which  former  Residents 
had  drawn  their  personal  expenses,  and  it  was,  on 
my  suggestion,  directed  that  in  future  I  should  be 
allowed  to  draw  monthly  the  average  of  the  former 
charges    on    this   account,    reference    being    at    the 


z6o        BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

same  time  had  by  the  Supreme  Government 
to  the  increased  expenses,  which  must  necessarily 
be  incurred  by  me  as  Agent  to  the  Governor- 
General,  and  otherwise,  in  moving  from  place  to 
place.  It  was  proposed  by  the  Civil  Auditors  that 
I  should  be  authorised  to  draw  at  the  rate  of  Rs.5000 
per  month  on  account ;  but  it  was  finally  deter- 
mined that  the  amount  to  be  in  the  first  instance 
drawn  should  be  limited  to  the  average  expenses 
of  Bencoolen,  viz.,  about  Rs.3700,  and  that  any 
excess  incurred  beyond  that  sum  should  be  separ- 
ately drawn,  and  accounted  for  as  Durbar  charges. 
The  disbursement  in  question,  and  the  charge 
now  referred  to,  was  for  such  expenses  incurred 
during  the  mission  to  Acheen  and  Singapore,  and 
for  the  period  from  my  quitting  Calcutta  till  my 
leaving  Singapore  to  return  to  Bencoolen.  .  .  . 

'  On  the  principle  adopted  by  former  Residents 
I  might  have  drawn  the  actual  expenses  on  honour, 
without  limitation  as  to  the  amount,  and  it  was 
only  at  my  request  and  to  simplify  the  accounts 
that  any  change  in  form  was  made.'  Among  the 
items  questioned  was  *  house  rent  at  Singapore.' 
As  Raffles  pointed  out,  'This  charge  was  as  neces- 
sarily incurred  as  every  other  public  charge  at 
Singapore,  and  I  am  at  a  loss  to  know  on  what 
principle  it  can  be  charged  against  me  personally  or 
why  it  is  now  disputed.  That  it  should  be  an 
extraordinary  charge  accounts  for  itself,  and  that 
it  was  actually  incurred  cannot  be  questioned  ;  and 
I  know  not  how  it  was  to  be  avoided,  unless  I  had 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  261 

paid  the  money  out  of  my  own  pocket,  which 
could  not  be  expected.' 

To  all  who  care  for  the  honour  of  their  country — 
and,  where  the  Home  Government  has  established  a 
Chartered  Company,  the  legal  maxim  qui  fac'it  per 
aliutn  facit  per  se  assuredly  applies — the  spiteful 
pettiness  which  sought  to  punish  the  founder  of 
Singapore  for  his  own  greatness  cannot  but  be  a 
cause  of  sorrow  and  shame.  Compare  the  manner 
in  which  far  less  important  services  by  military 
commanders,  entailing  heavy  expense  to  the  country, 
have  been  eenerouslv  rewarded,  with  the  o;rudo-in^ 
manner  in  which  the  out-of-pocket  expenses  were 
scanned  of  the  statesman  who,  without  the  loss  of  a 
single  life,  gave  to  the  Empire  a  new  great  centre  of 
commerce  and  called  a  Further  British  India  into 
existence  in  the  Far  East  to  vie  with  the  greatness 
of  the  first. 

In  excuse  for  the  East  India  Company  it  may  be 
said  that  their  finances  at  the  time  were  by  no  means 
in  a  flourishing  condition,  that  the  establishments  not 
in  India  proper  had  been  always  kept  outside  the 
inner  ring  of  chartered  prodigality,  that  the  greatness 
of  Singapore  lay  in  the  future  and  required  a  states- 
man's eye  to  recognise.  Be  this  as  it  may,  there  is 
good  ground  for  believing  that  this  action  on  their 
part  shortened  Sir  Stamford's  life.  His  health  had,  on 
the  whole,  improved.  In  the  spring  of  1825  he  had  a 
sudden  attack,  and  was  'inanimate  for  about  an  hour,' 
but  he  appeared  to  recover  from  this.  Although  it 
had  shaken  '  his  confidence  and  nerves,'  we  find  him 


262       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

writing  a  year  later  in  a  more  cheerful  tone.  At  the 
same  time  he  was  no  longer  able  to  bear  the  strain 
of  any  excitement.  The  recent  attack  had  been  of 
an  apoplectic  nature,  though  at  the  time  this  had  not 
been  understood.  His  strength  had  been  further 
reduced  by  whooping  cough,  caught  from  the 
children.  At  the  best,  worry  had  always  made  him 
ill.  In  this  state  of  things  a  second  attack  of  apoplexy 
found  him  an  easy  victim. 

He  had  passed  the  4th  of  July  with  his  family, 
'and  excepting  a  bilious  attack,  under  which  he  had 
laboured  for  some  days,  there  was  nothing  in  his 
appearance  to  create  the  least  apprehension  that  the 
fatal  hour  was  so  near.  Sir  Stamford  had  retired  to  rest 
.  .  .  between  10  and  11  o'clock  ...  on  the  following 
morning  at  five  o'clock,  it  being  discovered  that  he 
had  left  his  room  before  the  time  at  which  he 
generally  rose,  six  o'clock,  Lady  Raffles  immediately 
rose,  and  found  him  lying  at  the  bottom  of  a  flight  of 
stairs  in  a  state  of  complete  insensibility.  Medical 
aid  was  promptly  procured,  and  every  means  resorted 
to  to  restore  animation,  but  the  vital  spark  had  fled. 
The  body  was  opened,  under  the  direction  of  Sir 
Everard  Home,  the  same  day,  who  pronounced  his 
death  to  have  been  caused  by  an  apoplectic  attack, 
beyond  the  controul  of  all  human  power.  It  was 
likewise  apparent  that  the  sufferings  of  the  deceased 
must,  for  some  time  past,  have  been  most  intense.'  ^ 
Sir  Stamford  Raffles  thus  died  on  July  5,  1826,  on 
the  eve  of  his  forty-sixth  birthday. 

'    Gevthrrans  Magazine,  J"!)'  1S26. 


CHAPTER    X  V 

THE    MAN    AND    HIS    WORK 

Whatever  the  shortcomings  of  a  biography,  it 
cannot  fail,  if  it  follows  faithfully  the  events  of  his 
life,  to  give  some  idea  of  our  hero's  political  greatness. 
The  proof  of  his  services  to  Java  is  found  in  the 
testimony  of  the  Dutch  themselves.  When  he 
realised  that  Java  would  not  be  retained,  he  at  once 
set  himself  to  devise  a  plan  by  which  the  equili- 
brium of  British  interests  in  the  Far  East  might 
be  maintained.  When  the  action  of  the  home 
authorities  rendered  his  scheme  impossible,  he  did 
not  sit  down  to  sulk  or  to  despair,  but  from 
headquarters  so  unpromising  as  was  Bencoolen, 
still  busied  himself  in  devising  means  by  which  to 
extricate  British  interests  in  the  Far  East  from  the 
choking  grip  of  the  Treaty  of  August  1814.  The 
outcome  of  these  plans  was  the  foundation  of  Singa- 
pore. Nor  was  it  by  any  favour  of  fortune  that 
Raffles  produced  great  results.  His  elaborate 
State  papers  prove  him  to  have  been  as  prescient 
in  theory  as  he  was  prompt  in  deed.  The  makers 
of  history  have  for  the  most  part  wrought  uncon- 
263 


264       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

sciously,  and  the  English  in  their  greatest  achieve- 
ments have  been  generally  content  to  work  for  the 
immediate  present.  It  is  to  the  honour  of  Raffles 
that  he  was  distinguished  both  in  the  fields  of 
thought  and  of  action,  that  he  bridged  the  chasm 
which  divides  the  Wakefields  from  the  Clives  of 
this  series. 

Of  the  purely  political  side  of  Raffles's  work  we  of 
the  present  generation  can  hardly  judge.  We  can 
notice  in  some  measure  the  material  and  moral  results 
which  have  sprung  from  the  seed  sown  by  him. 
*■  The  crowd  of  splendid  shipping  '  ;  '  the  churches, 
public  buildings  and  offices '  ;  '  the  influence  of  the 
British  name  '  in  the  native  states — these,  in  the  strik- 
ing words  of  the  late  Governor,  Sir  Frederic  Weld, 
when  unveiling  our  hero's  statue  in  1887,  bear  living 
testimony  to  his  greatness.  But  though  such  results 
would  have  gladdened  the  heart  of  one  who  fought  so 
strenuous  a  battle  on  behalf  both  of  British  commerce 
and  of  native  rights,  the  cause  for  which  Raffles 
laboured  had  another  side.  We  are  so  accustomed  to 
a  state  of  things  under  which  world  power  is  con- 
centrated in  a  few  great  states  that  we  find  it  difficult 
to  realise  that  eighty  years  ago  little  Holland  claimed 
the  monopoly  of  the  Far  East.  The  Dutch  were, 
according  to  Raffles,  '  almost  the  most  powerful  nation 
in  India,'  having  15,000  European  troops  and  a  large 
fleet.  It  is  not  necessary  to  echo  every  opinion  of  our 
hero  with  regard  to  the  Home  Government  to  obtain 
a  right  grasp  of  the  situation.  The  British  contention 
had   been   that    the    true    Netherlands   had    remained 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  265 

loyal  to  the  British  connection,  and  that  the  absorp- 
tion by  France  had  been  a  revolutionary  interruption 
of  normal  relations.  But  if  this  contention  was  to 
be  made  out,  it  was  necessary  that  the  Netherlands 
should  be  propitiated  in  every  way,  and  that  the 
restored  monarchy  should  be  strong  and  friendly,  as 
well  as  independent.  Hence  the  colonial  policy 
which  seemed  to  Raffles  mere  moonshine  and  mad- 
ness. In  truth,  the  urgency  of  these  considerations 
serves  but  to  enhance  the  merits  of  our  hero's 
work. 

La  haute  Politique  had  brought  about  that  British 
interests  in  the  East  were  for  the  moment  at  the 
mercy  of  Holland.  Nor  let  it  be  supposed  that  the 
danger  was  slight  or  imaginary.  Sir  Henry  Maine 
somewhere  remarks  that  Bentham's  reputation  has 
suffered  from  the  very  completeness  of  some  of  his 
reforms.  To  some  extent  Raffles  has  met  with  the 
same  fate.  We  cannot  notice  the  urgency  of  the 
situation  because  of  the  completeness  of  the  revolution 
due  to  him.  At  that  time  the  power  of  the  Nether- 
lands stood  like  a  lion  in  the  path  of  the  open  road  to 
the  Far  East.  Without  the  shedding  of  a  single 
drop  of  blood  ;  unsupported  by  ministers  at  home  ; 
criticised,  snubbed  and  censured.  Raffles  removed  the 
impediment,  and  secured  to  Great  Britain  her  fair 
share  of  the  Eastern  trade.  If  ever  a  man  had  the 
right  to  say  '  alone  I  did  it,'  it  was  he.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  indulge  in  patriotic  dithyrambs,  but  if,  as 
cannot  be  denied,  Dutch  dominion  meant  monopoly, 
and    the    goal    of  Sir    Stamford    was    free    trade — if 


266       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

Dutch  dominion  meant  the  oppression  or  neglect  of 
the  natives,  and  the  goal  of  Sir  Stamford  was  their 
improvement  and  gradual  enfranchisement — then  un- 
doubtedly his  victory  vi^as  a  triumph  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  over  the  seventeenth,  of  light  over 
darkness. 

To  those  who,  on  the  strength  of  the  special  cir- 
cumstances of  Java,  would  deny  to  Raffles  the  title  of 
Free  Trader,  it  may  be  enough  to  quote  the  words 
written  in  1819  at  the  close  of  his  Minute  on  the 
Administration  of  the  Eastern  Islands : — 

'  Of  monopoly  it  may  be  said,  as  of  slavery,  that  it 
is  twice  cursed  ;  that  its  effects  are  not  less  ruinous  to 
those  who  enforce  it  than  to  those  who  are  subjected 
to  it.  .  .  .  Commerce,  like  liberty,  is  a  jealous 
power,  and  refuses  her  blessings  to  all  who  restrain 
her  course. 

*■  It  can  no  longer  be  the  interest  or  the  duty  of 
the  East  India  Company  to  carry  into  her  Indian 
administration  that  union  of  monopoly  and  coercive 
exaction  which  has  so  long  been  exploded  as  impolitic 
and  unjust,  .  .  .  The  time  is  past  when  the  Com- 
pany looked  for  her  profits  from  the  sale  of  a  yard 
of  broadcloth  or  a  pound  of  nails.  She  now  acts 
in  a  more  extended  sphere,  and  her  principles  have 
expanded  with  the  growth  of  her  Empire.  She  now 
looks  to  the  wealth  and  enterprise  of  those  she 
governs  as  the  sure  and  only  source  of  her  own 
financial  prosperity.' 

The  paper  above  quoted  should  be  carefully  con- 
sidered by  all   who  would  realise  how  complete  was 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  267 

the  grasp  which  Raffles  showed  of  Eastern  affairs. 
French  predominance  in  Cochin  China,  the  import- 
ance of  Siam,  the  bringing  influence  to  bear  upon  the 
Malay  States  by  means  of  Residents — throughout — the 
paper  teems  with  suggestions  of  what  the  future  had 
in  store. 

Critics  who  believe  that  the  one  object  of  the 
Builders  of  Greater  Britain  has  been  to  paint  the 
map  of  the  world  red  may  note  the  following 
passage  : — 

'  The  nature  of  our  connection  is  and  ought  to 
be  purely  commercial,  and  our  interference  politically 
no  further  extended  than  to  secure  the  general 
interests  of  that  commerce.  .  .  .  The  extent  and 
high  value  of  our  possessions  in  India  renders  the 
acquisition  of  further  territory,  particvilarly  in  new 
and  less  civilised  countries,  comparatively  unimportant 
and  perhaps  objectionable.'  Such  a  doctrine  has  been 
found  impossible  to  carry  out  in  fact,  none  the  less 
it  has  been  honestly  held  by  many  under  whom 
the  boundaries  of  the  Empire  have  been  steadily 
extended. 

However  great  the  value  of  Singapore  in  the 
present  and  in  promise.  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  was  far 
from  claiming  '  finality  '  for  his  work.  His  prescient 
eye  saw  in  the  future  the  need  which  created  Hong- 
Kong.  Among  the  advantages  he  claimed  for  Singa- 
pore was  that  it  *  afforded  facilities  for  hereafter 
establishing  another  factory  still  further  East  when- 
ever' it  may  be  decreed  expedient  to  do  so.'  Could 
Raffles    return    to    the    haunts    of    men    he    would 


268       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

find  the  justification  and  the  fulfilment  of  his  life 
work. 

A  few  words  must  be  added  with  regard  to  the 
man.  In  the  course  of  the  narrative  we  have  met 
the  devoted  son,  brother,  uncle,  friend  and  philan- 
thropist. He  was  the  kindest  of  masters,  the  most 
delightful  of  companions.  Faults,  of  course,  he  had, 
but  they  were  mainly  the  outcome  of  circumstances. 
Compelled  from  his  earliest  years  to  trust  to  his  own 
exertions,  he  occasionally  betrays  in  his  despatches  a 
note  of  fretful  self-sufficiency,  which  at  first  sight 
somewhat  jars.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the  fatal 
facility  with  which  Raffles  poured  out  voluminous 
despatches  at  the  shortest  notice  sometimes  deprives 
his  argument  of  its  full  force.  Supporters  of  a  classical 
education  may  cherish  the  belief  that  he  suffered  from 
the  loss  of  that  training  in  early  years,  which  teaches 
that  the  half  is  greater  than  the  whole. 

Like  many  other  great  men,  he  was  perhaps  a 
better  master  than  servant,  though,  when  once  his 
affections  were  touched,  as.  in  his  friendship  for  Lord 
Minto,  he  could  be  docility  itself.  Even  as  superior, 
he  required  perhaps  subordinates  who  would  yield  to 
his  commanding  character,  and  in  his  relations  with 
Mr  Crawfurd  the  whole  fault  may  not  have  been  on 
one  side.  The  manner  in  which  Colonel  Farquhar 
belied  the  expectations  formed  of  him  and  other 
instances,  which  we  meet  in  the  course  of  his  history, 
suggest  the  doubt  whether  Raffles,  with  his  sanguine 
nature,  was  always  a  discerning  judge  of  men.  The 
modern   reader  will  wish  that,  however  inevitable  in 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  269 

the  circumstances,  the  constant  complaint  about  money 
matters  could  have  been  omitted. 

Nevertheless,  when  all  deductions  have  been  made, 
the  character  of  Raffles  stands  out  as  great  morallv 
and  intellectually  as  it  was  politicalh'.  No  man  was 
ever  tried  more  terribly  by  fortune  and  circumstances. 
Another  Job,  he  might  lament  the  loss  of  possessions, 
children  and  health.  Scurvily  treated  by  his  superiors 
and  subjected  to  snubs  from  lesser  men,  he  never  for  an 
instant  became  soured,  or  lost  the  charming  urbanity 
of  his  natural  disposition.  It  is  true  that  the  final 
judgment  of  the  East  India  Company  (April  12, 
1826)  on  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  admits  the  value  of  his 
services.  '  To  him  the  country  is  chiefly  indebted  for 
the  advantages  which  the  settlement  of  Singapore  has 
secured  to  it.  The  Court  consider  this  a  very  strong 
point  in  Sir  Stamford  Raffles's  favour,  and  are  willing 
to  give  him  to  the  full  extent  the  benefit  of  their  testi- 
mony respecting  it.'  Nevertheless,  their  patronising 
and  not  too  cordial  praise  could  not  atone  for  what 
had  gone  before.  Lady  Raffles  writes  : — '  It  was  his 
often  expressed  hope  that  he  had  experienced  sufficient 
trial  to  purify  his  soul.'  In  his  last  days,  indeed,  '  his 
sense  of  enjoyment  was  as  keen  as  ever,  his  spirit  as 
gay,  his  heart  as  warm,  his  imagination  still  brighter, 
though  his  hopes  in  the  world  were  less.  He  was 
contented  with  the  happiness  of  the  present  moment, 
and  only  asked  for  its  continuance,'  but  '  the  death- 
blow had  been  struck,  the  silver  chord  was  broken  at 
the  wheel.' 

We  have  already  noted  our  hero's  love  of  children 


270       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

and  of  animals.  Throughout  the  correspondence  with 
the  Duchess  of  Somerset  the  '  dear  Governor '  is  always 
sending  messages  to  the  children.  The  nurse  who 
took  the  sole  surviving  child  home  had  also  in  charge 
'  two  monkeys  and  a  bear  for  Seymour,  and  two  very 
pretty  squirrels  for  Anna  Maria.'  On  his  last  return 
he  mentions  regretfully  that  of  living  animals  he  has 
only  brought  home  a  tiger  and  two  tiger  cats.  It  is 
pleasant  to  think  how  much  innocent  pleasure  this 
distinguished  child-lover  has  given  to  countless 
thousands  of  children  by  the  foundation  of  '  the 
Zoo.'  The  value  of  his  services  to  science  was 
attested  by  contemporaries  of  the  highest  authority. 
More  interesting  to  us  nowadays  is  the  light  those 
services  incidentally  throw  upon  his  general  character. 
Dr  Horsfield,  his  friend  and  assistant,  described  how, 
after  the  burning  of  the  Fame^  on  his  return  to 
Bencoolen,  he  'at  once  resumed  his  labours  with 
unabated  energy  and  ardour,  and  during  the  short 
period  of  a  few  weeks  he  succeeded  in  accumulating 
such  a  number  of  materials  of  an  interesting  nature 
as  alone  entitle  him  to  the  rank  of  an  eminent  bene- 
factor of  science.'  In  an  eloquent  address  to  the  Zoo- 
logical Club  of  the  Linnean  Society,  Mr  Vigers  spoke 
of  '  that  comprehensiveness  of  mind,  which  embraced, 
as  if  by  intuition,  the  entire  of  every  subject  to  which 
it  applied  itself;  that  promptness  of  spirit,  which 
executed  as  soon  as  it  conceived  ;  that  total  prostra- 
tion of  all  selfish  feelings,  which  acknowledged  no 
interests  but  those  of  the  great  cause  he  espoused. 
Transcendent  as  were   his  other  qualities,  it   is  that 


SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES  271 

last  perhaps  to  which  we  may  refer  with  the  deepest 
satisfaction.'  Again,  he  remarks  upon  the  'entire 
devotedness  with  which,  listening  not  to  such  timid 
suggestions,  but  making  '  one  great  offering  '  of  his 
time,  his  talents  and  energetic  exertions,  he  laid  them, 
with  all  confiding  homage,  before  the  shrine  of  the 
science  he  worshipped.' '  In  truth  a  tireless  energy  was 
the  keynote  of  his  character. 

'  Nature  that  framed  us  of  four  elements, 
Warring  within  our  breast  for  regiment, 
Doth  teach  us  all  to  have  aspiring  minds  : 
Our  souls,  whose  faculties  can  comprehend 
The  wondrous  architecture  of  the  world, 
And  measure  every  wandering  planet's  course, 
Still  climbing  after  knowledge  infinite. 
And  always  moving  as  the  restless  spheres, 
Wills  us  to  wear  ourselves,  and  never  rest 
Until  we  reach  the  ripest  fruit  of  all.' 

But  svich  natures  are  of  necessity  short-lived. 
Young  as  he  was  in  years  and  young  in  buoyancy 
of  spirit.  Raffles  described  himself  in  1822  as  'a  little 
old  man,  all  yellow  and  shrivelled,'  and  his  '  hair  pretty 
well  blanched.'     The  spirit,  indeed,  continued  ready, 

'  In  the  same  address  Mr  Vigers  spoke  of  Raffles  as  'the  founder  and 
first  President '  of  the  Zoological  Society.  '  With  what  delight  have  we 
dwelt  upon  the  words  of  that  great  man,  when,  with  an  intelligence  that 
in  a  less  enlightened  age  might  have  passed  for  a  spirit  of  prophecy,  he 
portrayed,  even  to  the  minutest  details,  the  plans  and  the  hopes  which  we 
have  since  seen  realised.  .  .  .  Nor  was  the  confidence  misplaced,  or 
the  sacrifice  abortive.  He  is  gone,  but  his  spirit  and  energy  survived  ; 
and  the  results  appear  in  the  great  work  before  you.' 


272       BUILDERS  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN 

but  the  flesh  was  weak.  And  so  we  cannot  wonder 
that  the  end  came  so  soon.  But  if  men  live  not  by 
the  length  of  their  days,  but  by  the  work  which  they 
have  accomplished,  the  memory  of  Raffles  will  survive 
so  long  as  the  Empire  does  honour  to  its  builders.  Of 
him,  as  of  the  great  Roman  Governor,  it  may  be  said, 
that  he  lives  '  in  animis  hominum,  in  aeternitate  tem- 
porum,  fama  rerum.' 


APPENDIX    I 


APP 


GENEALOGICAL  TREE   OF 


BENJAMIh 

THOMiA 

=  Anne  Lyde,  d. 

1824. 

William. 

(0 

Anne, 
3.1779; 
d.  1780. 

(2) 

T  H  0  M  A  s  =  (a)  Olivia  =  (o) 
Stamford,       Marianne,        H 
b.    July    6,       (nee    Deve-       b. 
1781  ;                NiSHjWidow        m, 
d.  July  5,         of    J.       C.       d. 
1826.                Fancourt), 

b.      1771  ; 

m,     March 

14,     1805; 

d.  Nov.  1814. 

Sophia 

U  L  L, 

1786; 
1817; 
1858. 

(3)                                       (4) 

Harriet  =  Mr  Browne.    Leonora 
3,1783;                                ^.1785; 
W.1816.                                ^.1855. 

=  {a)  Mr  L 
m.  1 

(i.)                        (ii.)                       (iii. 

Charlotte     Leopold Stam-     S  t  a  m 

Sophia, 3.  Feb.       ford,  b.  Mar.        Marsdi 

15,  1818;  d.       23,   1819;  d.        May25 

Jan.  14, 1822.       July  4,1821.         d.      Jai 

1822. 

) 

FORD 

N,      b. 

1820; 

1.        4, 

(iv.) 
Ella     Sophia, 
b.      May    27, 
1 82 1  ;  </.  May 
5,  1840. 

(V.) 

Flora    Night- 
ingall,        b. 
Oct.  12, 1823, 
d.    Nov.     28, 
1823. 

X    I 


^MFORD   RAFFLES'S   FAMILY. 


John. 


r  Brown. 


(5) 

Elizabeth, 
b.  1787, 
d.  1 79 1. 


I  I 

(6)  (7) 

Benjamin,      Mar  y  =  (j)   Mr    2"in-  =  (Zi)         Wjl- 

b.  and    d.      Anne,       tin     Dick       liam  Flint, 

1788.  b.  1789;       Thompson,         Capt.  R.N., 

d.  1837.        m.         1805  ;         b.         1781  ; 

d.  1809.  m.        1811  5 

d.  1829. 


(8) 

Anne, 
b.  17935 
d.  182—. 


(i-) 

QuiNTIN 

(ii.) 

Charlotte 

(ii.) 
Stamford 

(iv.) 
William 

(v.) 
Mary 

ACHEEON. 

Raffles 

Raffles 

Charles 

Sophia 

Drury. 

Charles. 

Raffles, 
b.  18195 
d.  1884. 

Anne, 
b.  18235 
d.  1848. 

APPENDIX     II 


APPENDIX    II 


INSTRUCTIONS  BY  SIR  STAMFORD  RAFFLES 
WITH  REGARD  TO  THE  PLANNING  OUT 
OF  SINGAPORE 

Considering  the  present  importance  of  Singapore,  the 
following  extracts  from  the  instructions  given  by  Raffles 
to  a  committee  appointed  on  November  4,  1822,  to  deal 
with  the  question  of  the  laying  out  of  the  town,  are  of 
great  interest.  The  instructions,  which  have  never  been 
published,  have  been  kindly  furnished  by  Sir  James 
Swettenham,  K.C.M.G. 

'  In  considering  the  extent  of  the  ground  necessary  to  be 
appropriated  for  the  town  generally,  reference  must  be  had 
not  only  to  the  numbers  of  the  present  inhabitants  and  the 
probability  of  their  future  increase,  but  to  the  nature  and 
occupations  of  the  several  classes  of  which  it  is  composed, 
and  the  demands  they  may  respectively  have  to  preference 
in  regard  to  advantageous  sites  for  trades,  etc.,  and  it  will 
be  a  primary  object  to  secure  to  the  mercantile  community 
all  the  facilities  which  the  natural  advantages  of  the  port 
afford.  At  present  a  considerable  portion  of  the  sea  and 
river  face,  which  may  hereafter  become  important  for 
mercantile  purposes,  is  occupied  by  the  lower  classes  of 
Chinese,  and,  as  might  be  expected,  many  of  the  early 
settlers  have  occupied  positions  and  extent  of  ground  which 
are  now  urgently  demanded  by  a  higher  and  more  respect- 
able class.  A  line  must  be  drawn  between  the  classes 
279 


28o  APPENDIX  II 

engaged  in  mercantile  speculations  and  those  gaining  their 
livelihood  by  handicraft  and  personal  labour,  the  former, 
and  particularly  the  principal  merchants,  will  require  the 
first  attention,  and  there  does  not  appear  any  reason  why 
the  latter  should  in  any  instance  be  allowed  to  occupy  these 
situations  which  are  likely  at  any  time  to  be  required  by 
the  commercial  community.  The  cultivators  form  a  third 
and  interesting  class,  particularly  of  the  Chinese  population, 
but  as  no  part  of  the  ground  intended  to  be  occupied  as 
the  town  can  be  spared  for  agricultural  purposes,  they  will 
not  fall  under  your  consideration,  except  in  as  far  as  it  may 
be  necessary  to  exclude  them. 

'  The  town  may  already  be  considered  to  occupy  an 
extent  of  the  sea  face  from  Telloh  Ayer  to  the  large  inlet 
formed  by  Sandy  Point  of  nearly  three  miles,  and  it  may 
be  presumed  that  if  a  space  is  reserved  from  thence  inland 
in  every  direction  of  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile,  as  the 
ground  may  admit,  it  will  be  sufficient  for  all  the  purposes 
required  in  a  principal  town  ;  a  second  town  is  gradually 
rising  near  the  Salat  or  Malay  Straits,  and  as  soon  as 
the  road  of  communication  is  opened  it  may  be  expected 
that  a  very  considerable  population  will  collect  in  that 
quarter.  .  .  .  Along  this  line  of  sea  face  it  will  be  ex- 
pedient to  preserve  for  the  public  all  the  space  between 
the  road  which  runs  parallel  to  the  beach  and  the  sea,  and 
generally  it  is  deemed  advisable,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  settlement,  to  reserve  an  open  space  along  the  beach, 
excepting  where  it  may  be  required  by  individuals  for 
special  purposes.  With  this  view  the  Chinese  artificers 
who  have  settled  on  the  beach  near  Telloh  Ayer  and  Cam- 
pong  Glam  will  be  required  to  remove  from  thence 
without  delay.  In  the  distribution  of  the  ground 
intended  to  form  the  site  of  the  town,  you  will  most 
particularly  observe  that  the  whole  of  the  space  included 


APPENDIX  II  281 

between  the  Singapore  river  and  the  old  lines  inland  from 
the  sea  face  to  the  back  of  the  hill,  including  a  space 
of  200  yards  east  of  the  old  lines,  is  reserved  for  the 
immediate  purposes  of  Government.'  Commanding  posts 
which  might  be  useful  for  defence,  as  well  as  space  for  a 
marine  yard,  were  also  reserved.  'With  these  exceptions 
the  whole  of  the  space  above  pointed  out  may  be  allotted  to 
individuals.  .  .  .  With  the  view  of  affording  every  possible 
accommodation  to  the  trade  of  the  port,  it  is  proposed  that 
in  addition  to  the  sea  face  to  the  eastward  of  the  Canton- 
ments, the  whole  of  the  south-west  bank  of  the  Singapore 
river,  with  the  circular  road  round  the  hill  between  the 
Point  and  Telloh  Ayer,  shall  be  appropriated  for  the  use  of 
European  and  other  merchants.  .  .  .  The  necessity  of 
draining  the  ground  on  the  south-west  side  of  the  river  is 
no  less  indispensable  for  the  health  of  the  settlement  than 
for  securing  the  foundations  of  whatever  permanent 
buildings  may  be  erected  thereon,  and  it  is  intended  to  pro- 
ceed on  the  operation  with  the  least  delay  practicable.  .  .  . 
To  the  eastward  of  the  Cantonment,  as  far  generally  as 
the  Sultan's,  and  inland  to  the  bank  of  the  Rochar  River 
and  the  foot  of  the  hills,  including  the  whole  of  the  great 
Rochar  plain,  is  to  be  considered  as  set  apart  exclusively 
for  European  and  other  principal  settlers. 

'  From  the  number  of  Chinese  already  settled,  and  the 
peculiar  attraction  of  the  place  for  that  industrious  race, 
it  may  be  presumed  that  they  will  always  form  by  far  the 
largest  portion  of  the  community.  The  whole,  therefore, 
of  that  part  of  the  town  to  the  south-west  of  the  Singapore 
river  (not  excepted  as  above)  is  intended  to  be  appropriated 
for  their  accommodation.  They  will  be  permitted  to 
occupy  the  south-west  bank  of  the  river,  above  the  in- 
tended bridge,  on  certain  conditions  ;  and  the  high  road 
leading  from  the  bridge  to  the  present  Chinese  Campong, 


282  APPENDIX  II 

as  well  as  the  banks  of  the  small  inlet  to  the  southward 
of  it,  will  offer  many  advantageous  situations  as  yet 
unoccupied. 

'.  .  .  In  establishing  the  Chinese  Campong  on  a  proper 
footing,  it  will  be  necessary  to  advert  to  the  provincial  and 
other  distinctions  among  this  peculiar  people.  ...  It 
will  also  be  necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  fixed 
residents  and  itinerants,  between  the  resident  merchants 
and  the  traders  who  only  resort  to  the  port  for  a  time.  .  .  . 
The  object  of  Government  being  to  afford  the  utmost 
accommodation  to  every  description  of  traders,  but  more 
particularly  to  the  respectable  classes,  you  will  always 
keep  this  in  view.  .  .  .  Few  places  offer  greater  natural 
facilities  for  commerce  than  Singapore,  and  it  is  only 
desired  that  the  advantage  of  these  facilities  be  afforded  to 
all  who  are  competent  to  avail  themselves  of  them.'  .  .  . 

'  It  being  Intended  to  place  the  Chinese  population  in 
a  great  measure  under  the  immediate  control  of  their  own 
chiefs,'  central  and  commanding  sites  were  to  be  provided 
for  their  residences.  The  streets  were  to  run  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  and  to  be  at  least  forty  feet  wide. 
They  were  to  be  arranged  in  three  classes,  each  with  its 
allotted  number  of  houses.  A  small  ground  was  to  be 
placed  on  each  site.  Police  stations  were  to  be  set  apart 
in  each  street  or  division. 

'  The  concentration  of  the  different  descriptions  of 
artificers,  such  as  blacksmiths,  carpenters,  etc.,  in  par- 
ticular quarters  should  also  be  attended  to.' 

Verandahs  were  to  be  attached  to  the  houses  'of  a  cer- 
tain depth,  open  at  all  times  as  a  continued  and  covered 
passage  on  each  side  of  the  street.'  Alas  for  the  vanity  of 
human  effort  !  A  marginal  note  informs  us  that  these 
passages  are  now  filled  with  merchandise. 

'Next  to  the  Chinese  your  attention  will  be  directed  to 


APPENDIX  II  283 

the  Bugis  settlers  ...  it  will  be  equally  necessary  to 
attend  to  economy  in  the  distribution  of  ground  by  laying 
out  regular  streets  inland  towards  the  river,  and  obliging 
the  inhabitants  to  conform  thereto.  At  present  the  houses 
are  scattered  without  any  attention  to  order  or  conveni- 
ence. .  .  .  The  Arab  population  will  require  every  con- 
sideration, and  their  expected  numbers  should  be  at  not  less 
than  1000  to  2000.  No  situation  will  be  more  appropri- 
ate to  them  than  the  vicinity  of  the  Sultan's  residence.  .  .  . 
It  being  intended  to  appropriate  the  space  between  Sandy 
and  Deep  Water  as  a  marine  yard,  permission  will  be 
given  to  Chinese  artificers  to  settle  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
public  works  on  certain  conditions.  .  .  . 

'  The  beach  from  the  extremity  of  the  European  town 
will  still  continue  open  for  the  repairs  and  building  of 
native  vessels  as  at  present,  and  it  is  proposed  that  hereafter 
a  public  pier  should  be  thrown  out  in  this  quarter  in  the 
most  convenient  spot  for  trade.  .  .  . 

'  The  Malay  population  being  principally  attached  to 
the  Toomongong,  or  engaged  in  fishing,  may  not  require 
any  very  extensive  allotments.  It  is  probable  the  larger 
portion  of  the  former  will  settle  near  Panglima  Prangs  and 
the  upper  banks  of  the  river,  and  that  the  latter  will  find 
accommodation  for  themselves  in  the  smaller  bays  and 
inlets  beyond  the  immediate  line  of  beach  reserved  for  the 
town,  .  .  . 

'As  a  measure  of  police  it  is  proposed  to  remove  the 
fish  market  to  Telloh  Ayer  without  delay,  and  it  will  be 
the  duty  of  the  committee  to  consider  how  far  the  general 
concentration  of  the  fish,  pork,  poultry  and  vegetable 
markets  in  the  vicinity  of  each  other  may  not  be  ad- 
vantageous for  the  general  convenience  and  cleanliness 
of  the  place. 

'  The  importance  of  early  provision   for  Mahommedan 


284  APPENDIX  II 

and  Chinese  burial  grounds,  particularly  the  latter,  at  a 
suitable  distance  from  town,  will  necessarily  fall  under  your 
consideration.' 

The  committee  were  to  explain  to  the  leading  native 
the    object    of  their   appointment,    'and    the    desire    of 
Government    in     associating    them    with    you    that   the 
interests  of  all  shall  be  duly  considered  in   the  arrange- 
ments adopted.' 


INDEX 


Abdulla,  Malay  Secretary,  de- 
scribes Mrs  Raffles,  9  ;  de- 
scribes Raffles,  38  -  40  ; 
anecdote  by,  44,  45  ;  descrip- 
tion of  foundation  of  Singa- 
pore Institute  by,  224-227  j 
description  of  departure  from 
Singapore  by,  234,  236  ;  on 
burning  of  Fame,  248. 

Acheen,  mission  to,  197,  198. 

Addenbrooke,  Colonel,  letter  to  on 
Singapore,  196,  197. 

Anderson,  Dr,  headmaster  of  school 
attended  by  Raffles,  3. 

Assey,  Mr,  Secretary  to  Council 
in  Java,  proceeds  to  Bengal, 
no. 

Auchmuty,  Sir  Samuel,  commands 
expedition  to  Java,  52  ;  his 
report  on  military  operations, 
53-57. 


74 


B 


Banca,     becomes      British, 
ceded  to  Dutch,  166. 

Bannerman,  Colonel,  Governor  of 
Prince  of  Wales's  Island,  175, 
176  ;  on  acquisition  of  Singa- 
pore, 1S4-1S9. 

Bathurst,  Earl,  disavows  Raffles, 
165. 

Bingley,  Mr  (godfather  to  Raffles), 

2. 

Boulger,  Mr,  author  of  Life  of  Sir 


Stamford   Raffies^    4,   8,    135, 

139. 
Broughton,  Commodore,  51. 
Buckinghamshire,   Earl  of,    letter 


126. 


C 


Cransen,     Dutch      Member      of 

Council,  73. 
Crawford,     Captain,    reports     on 

Singapore,  176, 
Cravvfurd,  Mr,  Resident  at  Djoc- 

jocarta,    67,    68  ;    appointed 

Resident  at  Singapore,  216. 


Daendels,     General,     recognises 

military  importance  of  Java, 

34  ;  becomes  Governor,  34  ; 

legacy  left  by,  62  ;  on  system 

of  land  tenure,  84. 
Deventer,  Dutch  historian,  quoted, 

76,  79,  80,  84,90,  195. 
Dundas,    Mr    P.,    Governor     of 

Prince  of  Wales's  Island,  5  ; 

death  of,  28. 
Dutch      East      India      Company, 

position  of,  60-62. 


East  India  Companv,  final  de- 
cision of  as  to  Gillespie's 
charges,     115-117;     dismiss 


285 


>M 


INDEX 


Raffles  from  government  of 
Java,  112,  124;  disapprove 
Raffles's  measures  at  Ben- 
coolen,  155  ;  forbid  establish- 
ment at  Simanka  Bay,  159  ; 
attitude  of  with  respect  to 
acquisition  of  Singapore,  192, 
193  ;  claims  over  ;^22,ooo 
from  Raffles,  256-261  ;  final 
judgment  of  on  Raffles,  269. 

Edmonstone,  Mr,  member  of 
Governor-General's  Council, 
minute  of  on  Gillespie's 
charges,  113. 

Elliot,  Captain  G.,  son  of  Lord 
Minto,  515  on  reconcilia- 
tion between  Gillespie  and 
Governor,  106. 

Engelhard,  former  Governor  of 
Java,  purchases  public  lands 
jointly  with  Raffles,  104. 


Farquhar,  Major,  appointed  Resi- 
dent at  Singapore,  180  ; 
postpones  departure,  216  ; 
superseded  by  Raffles,  217  ; 
unsatisfactory  conduct  of, 
217,  218. 

Fendall,  Mr,  appointed  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Java,  129-130. 


G 


Gillespie,  Colonel,  attacks 
Dutch,  54-57  ;  commands 
Palembang  expedition,  74  ; 
attacks  Djocjocarta,  78,  79  ; 
relations  of  with  Raffles,  100, 
loi  ;  on  sale  of  public  lands, 
103  ;  brings  charges  against 
Raffles,  105,  106  ;  death  of, 
III. 

Grant,  Mr  C.  (Director  of  East 
India  Company),  on  acquisi- 
tion of  Singapore,  194. 

Greigh,    Captain,    mentioned    by 


Leyden,  48  ;  establishes  feasi- 
bility of  S,  W.  passage  to 
Java,  50. 

H 

Hastings,  Marquis  of  (see  Moira, 
Lord),  minute  of  with  regard 
to  Dutch,  169  ;  on  acquisition 
of  Singapore,  183,  184,  189, 
190  ;  on  mission  to  Acheen, 
19S. 

Hope,  Mr,  Civil  Commissioner  for 
the  Eastern  districts,  67. 

Horsfield,  Dr,  evidence  of  as  to 
abolition  of  feudal  services, 
91  5  on  Governor's  Eastern 
tour  in  Java,  128  ;  on  Raffles's 
scientific  attainments,  205  ; 
testimony  of  as  to  Raffles, 
270. 


Inglis,  Sir  R.,  letter  to,  94,  95. 


Janssens,  General,  Governor  of 
Java,  55,  57,  58  ;  on  Daendel's 
government,  62. 

Jumelle,  General,  58. 


Lansdowne,  Marquis  of,  defends 
Raffles,  165. 

Leyden,  John,  description  of  by 
Lockhart,  1 8,  19  ;  visits  Pen- 
ang,  18  5  influence  of  with 
Lord  Minto,  20  ;  letter  of 
with  regard  to  Malacca  Re- 
port, 25  ;  letter  of  with 
regard  to  Java  expedition,  47, 
48  ;  death  of,  58. 

Light,  Captain,  acquires  Penang,  6. 

Lindeman,  Rev.  J.  (uncle  of 
Raffles),  2. 


INDEX 


287 


M 

Macalister,  Mr,  Go\ernor  of 
Prince  of  Wales's  Island,  28  ; 
approval  of  Raffles,  28,  29. 

Mackenzie,  Colonel,  President  of 
Commission  as  to  Javanese 
land  system,  86. 

Marsden,  Mr,  appreciation  of 
Raffles,  1 1  ;  letter  to  on 
Bencoolen,  146,  147  ;  letter 
to  on  Singapore,  195. 

Mataram,  Sultan  of,  66,  67,  75, 
76. 

Minto,  Earl  of,  Governor-General 
of  India,  Letters  from  India 
of,  9  ;  befriends  Leyden,  20  5 
praises  Raffles,  25  ;  position 
with  regard  to  Java,  34  ; 
conversation  with  Raffles,  36  5 
despatch  by,  37  ;  appoints 
Raffles  his  agent  with  the 
Malay  States,  37  ;  <letermines 
to  accompany  Java  expedi- 
tion, 47  ;  on  the  views  of  the 
East  India  Company  with 
regard  to  Java,  48,  49,  59  ; 
letter  to  Raffles,  49  ;  arrives 
at  Penang  and  Malacca,  50  ; 
arrives  at  Java,  51  ;  procla- 
mations of  on  landing  in 
Java,  52,  53  5  justifies  the 
retention  of  Java,  59  ;  pro- 
clamation of  September  1 1, 
1811,  64,  655  approves 
measures  with  regard  to 
Palembang,  Emperor  and 
Sultan,  80,  81  ;  recommends 
reform  in  land  tenure,  84, 
85  ;  on  sale  of  public  land, 
98-100  ;  (ieath  of,  124. 

Moira,  Lord  [see  Hastings,  Marquis 
of),  Governor-General,  is  pre- 
judiced against  Raffles,  106  ; 
letter  of  May  18 14  on 
Gillespie's  charges,  1 1 1,  112  ; 
minute  of  with  regard  to 
Gillespie's  charges,  114,  115. 

Moluccas,  capture  of,  34. 

Muntinghe,    Mr,    Dutch    member 


of  Council,  on  Raffles's  policy, 
66,  67  ;  doubts  as  to  new 
land  measures,  92  5  bears 
witness  to  Raffles's  services, 
96  ;  purchases  public  lands, 
104  ;  Dutch  Commissioner 
at  Palembang,  167. 


N 


NiGHTiNGALL,  General,  appointed 
to  command  in  Java,  102  5 
supports  Raffles,  no. 


Oliphant,  Mr  J.,  first  member  of 
Council  at  Prince  of  Wales's 
Island,  6  ;  death  of,  28. 


Palembang,  Sultan  of,  behaviour 
of,  73  ;  expedition  against, 
74,  75  ;  new  Sultan  appeals 
to  Raffles,  167. 

Pearson,  Mr,  appointed  Secretary 
at  Prince  of  Wales's  Island, 
6;  obtains  sick  leave,  15  ; 
member  of  council,  28. 

Public  lands,  sale  of,  98-105. 


R 


Raffles,     Benjamin    (father      of 

Raffles),  1, 
Raffles,  Charlotte   (eldest  child  of 

Raffles),  145. 
Raffles,     Lady     (second     wife    of 

Raffles),  140  ;  describes  home 

life  at  Bencoolen,   199,  200, 

201. 
Raffles,    Leopold    (eldest    son    of 

Raffles),  209  ;  death  of,  210. 
Raffles,     Mary     Ann    (sister     to 

R."ffles),  accompanies  him  to 


288 


INDEX 


the  East,  lO  ;  marries  Mr 
Quintin  Dick,  30 ;  second 
marriage  to  Captain  Flint, 
30  ;  letter  to,  145. 

Raffles,  Mrs  (mother  of  Raffles), 
2,4,  12  5  death  of,  250. 

Raffles,  Olivia  M.  (first  wife  of 
Raffles),  description  of  by 
Lord  Minto,  9  ;  poem  to  by 
Leyden,  9  ;  description  of  by 
Abdiilla,  9  ;  death  of,  127. 

Raffles,  Thomas  (grandfather  of 
Raffles),  clerk  in  Doctor's 
Commons,  2. 

Raffles,  Thomas,  D.D.  (cousin  to 
Raffles),  3  ;  reminiscences  of, 

135-137,253- 
Raffles,  Thomas  Stamford,  birth 
and  early  education,  1-3  ;  ap- 
pointed extra  clerk  in  the  India 
House,  3  ;  clerk,  4  5  char- 
acter of,  5  ;  appointed  assist- 
ant secretary  at  Prince  of 
Wales's  Island,  6  ;  marriage 
of,  7,  8  ;  voyage  to  East,  10  ; 
studies  the  Malay  language, 
10  ;  description  of  by  Captain 
Travers,  14,  15  ;  describes 
his  nevi'  position,  16,  17  ; 
breaks  down,  17  ;  visits 
Malacca,  18  ;  minute  on 
Malacca,  21-24  ;  paper  on 
the  Malay  nation,  27  ;  returns 
to  Penang,  28;  appointment  as 
secretary,  28  ;  question  of  in- 
crease of  salary  of,  29-32  ; 
proposed  as  Governor  of 
Moluccas,  35  ;  visits  Calcutta, 
35  ;  points  outtoLord  Minto 
importance  of  Java,  36  5  ap- 
pointed agent  to  the  Governor- 
General  with  the  Malay  States, 
37  ;  description  of  by  Ab- 
dulla,  38-40  ;  reports  as 
Agent  with  Malay  States,  40- 
44,  45-47  ;  anecdote  by 
Abdulla,  44  -  45  ;  Lord 
Minto's  prospective  interest 
in,  49 ;  feelings  of  on  first 
landing  in  Java,  51,  52  ;  ap- 


pointed Lieutenant-Governor 
of  Java,  58  ;  sanguine  esti- 
mate as  to  financial  situation, 
63  ;  difficulties  of,  64  5  atti- 
tude of  towards    Dutch,  65- 

66  5  instructions  to  residents, 

67  ;  visits  Emperor  and 
Sultan,  67-69  ;  collection  of 
revenue  by,  69  ;  commercial 
policy  of,  70 ;  introduces 
new  administration  of  justice, 
70-72  ;  justifies  to  Lord 
Minto  measures  against  Pal- 
embang,  74  ;  letter  to  Mr 
Ramsay,  78  ;  importance  of 
conquest  of   Djocjocarta,  79," 

80  ;  correspondence  with 
natives,  81  ;  revives  Batavian 
Society  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 

81  ;  reforms  system  of  land 
tenure,  83-93  ;  describes  aims 
of  new  land  policy,  87  ;  de- 
scribes duties  of  European 
collectors,  90,  91  ;  on 
amounts  of  rent,  91  ;  justi- 
fies his  action  as  to  land 
measures,  94,  95  ;  points  out 
effects  of  new  system  of  land 
tenure,  96  ;  testimony  of 
Dutch  as  to  wisdom  of,  96  ; 
recognises  necessity  of  sale  of 
public  land,  98  ;  letter  of 
with  regard  to  Gillespie's 
charges,  108  ;  removed  from 
government  of  Java,  1 12,  I20, 
124,  125  ;  appointment  of  as 
Resident  at  Bencoolen  con- 
firmed, 114;  appeals  to  East 
India  Company,  115;  general 
policy  of  with  regard  to 
Far  East,  n8-i20  ;  sends 
mission  to  Japan,  I2i  ; 
measures  of  with  regard  to 
slavery,  121,  122  ;  with 
regard  to  opium,  123  ; 
attitude  of  with  regard  to 
retention  of  Java,  123-126  ; 
complains  of  Lord  Moira, 
126;  on  1814  Treaty,  126; 
travels,  127,  128  ;  puts  down 


INDEX 


289 


Sepoy  conspiracy,  12S  5  ill 
health  of,  211,  238,  251, 
252,  261,  262  ;  returns  to 
England,  131,134;  interviews 
Napoleon,  132,  133  ;  reaches 
London,  134  ;  enjoys  society, 

135  ;  becomes  F.R.S.,  135  ; 
publishes    History     of    Jii'ua^ 

136  ;  is  knighted  by  Regent, 
137;  marries  second  wife, 
140  ;  visits  Continent,  141, 
142  5  interview  of  with  King 
of  the  Netherlands,  142,  143  ; 
is  given  title  of  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Bencoolen,  143  ; 
private  instructions  to,  143  ; 
leaves  England,  144  ;  de- 
scribes situation  at  Bencoolen, 
146-149;  emancipates  govern- 
ment slaves,  147  ;  abolishes 
forced  deliveries  of  pepper, 
and  cockfighting,  and  gaming 
farms,  149 ;  becomes  recon- 
ciled to  Bencoolen,  150; 
views  on  Sumatra,  151,  209  ; 
strengthens  the  native  chiefs, 

151  ;    encourages  agriculture, 

152  ;  reports  general  im- 
provement, 153  ;  advocates 
cultivation  of  sugar,  153; 
and  European  colonisation, 
154,  155  ;  reports  activity  of 
Dutch,  156,  160,  162; 
gratitude  of  planters  to,  156  ; 
founds  schools  and  Bible 
Society,  and  encourages  mis- 
sionaries, 156,  157;  treat- 
ment of  convicts  by,  157  ; 
advocates  acquisition  of  Sim- 
anka  Bay,  158  ;  makes 
treaties  with  native  rulers  in 
Sumatra,  159  ;  policy  of  with 
regard  to  Dutch,  162,  163  ; 
protest  of  against  Dutch 
proceedings,  164  ;  discovered 
by  ministers,  164,  165  ;  action 
with  regard  to  Palembang, 
167  ;  action  with  regard  to 
Pulo  Nias,  167,  168  ;  re- 
ceives   invitation   from    Lord 


Hastings,  170  ;  visits  Cal- 
cutta, 171  ;  appointed  agent 
to  the  Governor  -  General, 
171  ;  first  instructions  to,  172  ; 
foresees  Dutch  occupation  of 
Rhio,  172  ;  second  instruc- 
tions to,  173,  174  ;  arrives 
at  Penang,  174  ;  reception  of 
by  Colonel  Bannerman,  175, 

176  ;  contemplates  acquisition 
of  Singapore,  176,  177  ;  de- 
scribes   Island    of   Singapore, 

177  ;  embarks,  177  ;  surveys 
Carimon  Islands,  178  ;  ar- 
rives at  Singapore,  178  ; 
treaty  with  Sultan,  179  ;  ex- 
plains and  justifies  acquisi- 
tion of  Singapore,  181  ; 
private  letters  of,  on  acquisi- 
tion of  Singapore,  195-197  ; 
arrives  at  Acheen,  197  ;  signs 
treaty,  198  ;  travels  to  the 
interior  of  Sumatra,  203-209  ; 
domestic  troubles  of,  210, 
238  ;  kindness  to  brother- 
in-law.  Captain  Flint,  212, 
213  ;  money  claims  of,  213, 
214,  247  ;  revisits  Singapore, 
215  ;  supersedes  Colonel 
Farquhar,  217  ;  complains  of 
Farquhar's  conduct,  217,  218  ; 
local  laws  and  regulations  of, 
and  report  on  the  administra- 
tions of  justice,  219,  223  ;  as- 
sociates Sultan  and  Tumung'- 
gung  in  the  Government,  224  ; 
declares  Singapore  a  free  port, 
224  ;  founds  Singapore  Insti- 
tute, 224-227  ;  minute  by 
on  establishment  of  Malay 
College,  227  -  233  ;  leaves 
Singapore,  233  ;  describes  im- 
pressions of,  233  ;  abolishes 
slavery,  234  ;  returns  to 
Bencoolen,  237  ;  starts  home, 
238;  description  by  of  burn- 
ing of  Fame,  23S-245  ;  state- 
ment to  East  India  Company, 
245-^47  ;  final  departure  of, 
248  ;  diary  of,  248,  249  ;  re- 


290 


INDEX 


views  his  public  administra- 
tion, 251  ;  purchases  High- 
wood,  252  ;  relations  with 
Wilberforce,  253  ;  founds 
Zoological  Society,  255  ; 
scientific  services  of,  255  ;  re- 
ceives money  claim  from  East 
India  Company,  256  -  261  ; 
death  of,  262  5  puljlic  char- 
acter of,  263-268  ;  private 
character  of,  268-272. 

Ramsay,  Mr  W.,  Secretary  to  East 
India  Company,  befriends 
Raffles,  7  ;  resignation  of, 
124. 

Ramsay,  Mr  W.,  Junior,  corre- 
spondence   with    Raffles,    5, 

15-17,  32»  5i>  52»  108. 
Rhio,  172-175,  179. 


Sambas,  expedition  against,  120. 
Seton,     Mr,     accompanies     Lord 

Minto      to      Malacca,      48  ; 

minute      of     on     Gillespie's 

charges,  113,  114. 
Singapore   {see  under    Raffles,   Sir 

S.  T.),  attitude  of  Dutch  with 

regard    to,    181  -  183,    195  ; 


advantage  of  natural  situa- 
tion, 194. 

Somerset,  Duchess  of,  correspond- 
ence with,  139,  140,  144, 
196,  200,  201,  211,212,  250, 
251,  252,  270. 

Sosohunan  or  Emperor,  66,  75, 
76. 

Stamford,  Mr  (godfather  to 
Raffles),  2. 


Travers,  Captain,  friend  and  aide- 
de-camp  to  Raffles,  extracts 
from  Journal,  10,  14,  27,  73, 
76,  77j  85,  109,  no,  132- 
134- 

Tumung'gung  of  Singapore  makes 
treaty  with  Raffles,  179  ; 
intrigue  with  Dutch,  182  ; 
supports  Singapore  Institute, 
227. 


ViGERS,  Mr,  Secretary  to  Zoo- 
logical Club  of  Linnean 
Society,  appreciation  of 
Raffles,  270,  271. 


THE    END 


Cohton  <S-^  Coy.,  Lvnited,  Printers,  Edinburgh. 


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